Ch+25+outline

= = =Ch 25 Land Empires in the age of Imperialism 1800-1870=

Ottoman Empire:

 * =====lost most of its power=====
 * =====Napoleon Bonaparte and invasion force of 36000 men invaded egypt=====
 * =====Muhammad Ali, commander of Albania soldiers (dispossessed the mamluks of land and privileges=====
 * =====adopted many french practices=====
 * =====egyptians peasants were compelled to become soldiers-for Muhammad's new army=====
 * =====money for new thing(schools, training camps, and factories) came from confiscation of lands belonging to muslims=====
 * =====Muhammad Ali remained Egypt's ruler under the suzerainty of the sultan, until death in 1849=====
 * =====family ruled until 1952=====
 * =====Janissaries became a political force in istanbul Serbia, where Janissaries acted as provincial governors=====
 * =====Janissaries revolted against Selim and Massacred christians in Serbia=====
 * =====In war Selim was captured and executed before the capital was returned=====
 * =====Crimean War 1853=====
 * =====Greek independence in 1829=====
 * =====Russia signed a treaty in support of ottomans- when Muhammad Ali's Egyptian army invaded=====
 * =====the army raged in Romania, in black sea and on Crimean peninsula=====

Russian Empire
Russia and Asia Opium Taipiny Rebellion 1850-1864 Chapter 25: LAND EMPIRES IN THE AGE OF IMPERIALISM, 1800-1870 =__ The Ottoman Empire __=
 * 1860 Reign of peter the great
 * 1700 only 3% of Russians people lived in cities 1/3 of them in Moscow alone
 * Russia was an overwhelming agricultural land
 * well engineered roads didn't appear til 1817
 * steam navigation commented on the Volga in 1843
 * RUssia aspired to western-style economic development
 * Slavophites-in some respects resembled the young ottomans and considered the orthodox faith
 * Pan-Slavism-a militant political doctrine advocating unity of all the slavic people, including those living under Austrian and ottoman rule
 * 1860-Russia established a military out post on the Pacific coast that would eventually grow into a great naval port of Vladivoshok
 * Decembrist revolt failed
 * 1729 first Qing law banning opium imports was promulgated
 * opium war(1839-1842) broke out when negotiations between the Qing official and British representatives reached a stalemate
 * British technology for war was by far alot better and safer
 * 1842 terms of the treaty of nanking dismantled the old Canton system
 * Treaty of ports- cities opened to foreign residents
 * Hong kong became a permanent British colony
 * 1860 a new treaty legalized their rights to import opium
 * 1865 onward British gradually gained control of territories on china's Indian frontier
 * Inflammatory mixture of social unhappiness and foreign intrusion exploded in the great civil war usually called the Taiping Rebellion
 * Hong had his own interpretation of the Christian message (movement called Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace)
 * Rebel army conquered Nahjing in 1853
 * 1856 the british and French launched a series od swift, brutal coastal attacks-a second opium was, called Arrow war- which culminated in a britsh and French invasion of Beijing
 * estimates of death from Taiping rebellion 20 million to 30 ,million
 * Disease spread after Taiping Rebellion(some ares didn't recover until 12 th century)
 * Yellow river changed course in 1855, destroying southern part of impoverished Shandong province

// Egypt and the Napoleonic Example, 1798-1840 //
-(May 1798) Napoleon Bonaparte invades Egypt -Mamluk force defeated and dominated for several decades under loose control of the Ottoman sultan in Istanbul --stopped by British and Ottoman forces when invading Syria --returned to France and became emperor -**Muhammad Ali**- (1769-1849) Leader of Egyptian modernization in the early nineteenth century. Ruled Egypt as an Ottoman governor, but had imperial ambitions. Descendants ruled Egypt until overthrown in 1952 --commander of Albanian soldiers sent by sultan to restore imperial control --(1811) took lands and privileges away from Mamluks --adopted French practices (conscriptions) while rebuilding Egypt --special training schools utilizing European skills and sciences --sent Turks and Circassians to France for education - --only people to serve as military officers -(1830s) son Ibrahim invaded Syria -(1841) withdrew to present-day border between Egypt and Israel due to European pressure -remained ruler till death (1849) -family ruled until 1952

// Ottoman Reform and the European Model, 1807-1853 //
-(18th century end) Sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807) started reform by creating European-style military units, standardizes taxation and land possession, and brought centralized control over provincial governors --reforms failed for political reasons --(1806) suspended program of reforms due to protests - -executed -**Janissaries**- infantry, originally of slave origin, armed with firearms and constituting the elite of the Ottoman army from the 15th century until the corps was abolished in 1826 --opposed Selim III’s reforms --preserved economic privileges and resisted creation of new military units --provincial governors of Serbia ---resented by residents due to claims of abuse towards Orthodox Christians -ulama (Muslim religious scholars) against secularization of law and taxation proposed by Selim -**Serbia**- the Ottoman province in the Balkans that rose up against Janissary control in the early 1800s. After WWII, the central province of Yugosalvia, Serb leaders struggled to maintain dominance as the Yugoslav federation dissolved in the 1990s -Selim threatened to move Janissaries to Istanbul -(1805) Janissaries revolted against Selim and annihilated Christians -unable to reestablish Ottoman rule over Serbia -ruler of Bosnia joined Serbia against Janissaries -Serbia became independent -Selim’s cousin Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839) continued reforms --used Egyptian’s failure to suppress Greece’s rebellion to show people need of reformations ---(1829) Greek’s independence included combination of organizations forming independence movement putting Egypt into shame -aided by Europeans due to interest in classical age -(1826) created new military unit and destroyed Janissary corps when they attempted to revolt -(1839) Ibrahim attacked Syria and Mahmud died -empire dependent on Europe for help -**Tanzimat**- “restructuring” reforms by the 19th century Ottoman rulers, intended to move civil law away from the control of religious elites and make the military and the bureaucracy more efficient --(1839) announced by Mahmud’s 16 yearold son and Abdul Mejid - -public trials and equal protection regardless of religion --some rights of privacy - -equal eligibility for conscription - -new method of tax collection ending Ottoman’s tax farming - -special tax for non-Muslims abolished - -all male subjects had equal access to courts - -rejection of religious principles in government - -start of Middle East’s modern thought and enlightened government - -noble principles in government --removal of religious elite’s influence in government caused removed the one remaining check on strict rule --series of legal code created --value of religious education and sharia (Islamic law) lost dominance -(1830s) Istanbul University on military sciences -(1836) first medical school -French became preferred language in advanced training -many students continued to learn in Quran schools -embracement of European language and customs -(1831) first Turkish newspaper -changed ways after accepting European modern weapons and military drills - -beards became unhygienic and a fire hazard - -controversial headgear led to compromise of the brimless cap (fez) -(late 1800s) European dress brought to Ottoman -workers paid with cash and competition drove away working-women - -industrial labor and “woman’s work” (weaving) were mechanized and done by men -reforms ended women’s control over indirect control over property - -trusts that had been set up in religious courts transferred to government // The Crimean War and Its Aftermath, 1853-1877 // -Russian empire trying to expand to Ottoman Empire - -(1815) took Georgian region - -wanted free access to Mediterranean Sea --(18th century) claims of being protector of Ottoman Orthodox Christian people in Greece and Balkans --(1833) signed treat to support Ottoman -- -extension to cover all Orthodox peoples in empire -(1852) sultan named France Protector of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem granting them some religious privileges - -Russia protested and invaded Romania --France and Britain were allies of sultan --conflicts on who would control Ottoman or whether it should exist until Empire dissolved after WWI --called Eastern Question -Britain suspicious of Russia -**Crimean War**- (1853-1856) conflict between the Russian and Ottoman Empires fought primarily in the Crimean Peninsula. To prevent Russian expansion, Britain and France sent troops to support the Ottomans --Russian fleet trapped in Black Sea --British and French invaded Sevastopol, Russia’s main base in Crimea -- -Russian military were of no match and suffered from disease unable to gain supplies with lack of railroads and govt. corruption --Tsar Nicolas died and Alexander II (r. 1855-1881) surrendered -newspapers used to gain public support for a war --Britain emphasized on contribution to war --France promoted unity between Turkish and French society -transition from traditional to modern warfare --accurate and rapid breech-loading rifles --(1830s-1840s) Europe adopted percussion caps to avoid having to pouring gunpowder in musket -Ottoman’s economy changed - -gold coins valued declined to British pound - -(1850s) creation of banks, insurance companies, and legal firms --(1850-1880) people moving to cities --declining revenues in agricultural yields --damaged finances with corruption --dependent on foreign loans after war ---lowered tax to favor European imports and Europe opened banks in Empire -**extraterritoriality**- the right of foreign residents in a country to live under the laws of their native country and disregard the host country’s laws. In the 19th and 20th centuries, European and American nationals living in certain areas of Chinese and Ottoman cities were granted this right --Europeans lived in Ottoman’s centers under own laws and excused from Ottoman authority -abundant foreign trade but few exports from Anatolia --Egyptian cotton exports increased during American Civil War benefiting Ali’s descendants, not Ottoman government -(1869) Suez Canal opened -Cairo rebuilt -(1860s-1870s) demand for constitution and permission for all men to vote -**Young Ottomans**- movement of young intellectuals to institute liberal reforms and build a feeling of national identity in the Ottoman Empire in the 2nd half of 19th century --promoted European liberal ideas, pride in Ottoman independence, and modern Islamic views --(1876) publicize drafted constitution by sultan Abdul Hamid II ---(1877) constitution and newly elected parliament suspended with threats of war against Russia in Balakans __ The Russian Empire __ // Russian and Europe // -(1700) 3 percent lived in cities with 2/3 in Moscow -(mid 19th century) population rose tenfold -agricultural land -worse transportation than Ottoman (who had seaports) -people spoke many languages -(1817) well-built roads and steam navigation (1843) -(1837) Tsar Nicholas I built first Russian railroad --American engineers (James McNeill Whistler) as supervisors -British set up textile mills in Russia -Nicholas feared spreading literacy and modern education beyond the minimum of training officer corps and bureaucracy --wanting to avoid liberalism, socialism, or revolution --kept serfdom - -import industrial goods and exported grain and timber -lack of efficient transportation and weapons during Crimean War - -muzzle-loading artillery while other Europeans had fast loading of cannon -feared by Britain and France as rival for power in E. Europe and E. Mediterranean Sea -**Slavophiles**- Russian intellectuals in the early 19th century who favored resisting w. European influences and taking pride in the traditional peasant values and institutions of Slavic people -**Pan-Slavism**- movement among Russian intellectuals in the second half of 19th century to identify culturally and politically with the Slavic peoples of E. Europe -subjection of serfs until 1861 by Tsar Alexander II was despised by Britain // Russia and Asia // -(19th century) Russia expanded south -(1860) military outpost called Vladiovostok on Pacific coast -rise of province of Turkestan with defeat of Zazakh nomads -took over Christian Georgia (1786), Muslim Azerbaijan (1801) and Christian Armenia (1813) -(1829-1864) Russia took over Dagestan, Chechnya, Abkhazia, and other region until end of 20th century where they gained politic importance -friction with Qin China, Japan, Iran, and Ottoman Empire - -Muslim refugees had anti-Russian feelings --Armenian, Azerbaijani, and Bukharan exiles were exposed to Russian administration and education ---new ideas to Iran --migration of Crimean Turks and Circassians affected Ottoman’s demography new element to Eastern Question --prediction of Russia to not stop until it conquered all lands separating Britain from British India --conflict over who would control S. Central Asia // Cultural Trends // -Russia contacting w. Russia since Peter the Great’s time (r. 1689-1725) --knew western languages and politicians were hired from western countries --Ukranian clerics leading Russian Orthodox Church -Alexander I’s reforms met more positively than Ali and Mahmud II  - -wanted efficient bureaus like Mahmud but took too much time --Council of State worked on new ministerial system ---council controlled ministry affairs and new legislation - -made each minister responsible for hierarchy of officials below him (the commander in-chief) that was ineffective -well-off families opposed due to fear that the new officials would be imperial despots --fear realized during reign of Nicholas I -military officials, intellectuals, and Masonic lodges were for reforms --secret societies of opposition - -created constitution and republic form of government -(December 1825) Alexander I’s death led to conflict to who the successor should be -**Decembrist revolt**- Abortive attempt by army officers to take control of the Russian government upon the death of Tsar Alexander I (1825) -returned land to Ottomans in Europe and Asia after Crimean war -Alexander II emanciated serfs (1861) and gave property rights for prevention of them being laborers of landowners --authorized new joint stock companies, created railroad network, and modernized legal and administrative government -encouragement of liberal thought and education expansion in Alexander’s later years --Moscow University, German Universities, universities in provincial cities, and clubs -Nicholas promoted professional and scientific trainings -Alexander Herzen (1812-1870) gave rise to the narodniki (political movement dedicated to making Rusia a land of peasant community) -Feoder Dostoyevsky (1821-1881) and Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) wrote about reform ideas -(19th century) became a prominent political force in European politics and was similar to Ottoman Empire --reformed, overcame opposition, and increased governmental power -later become more related to W. Europe __ The Qing Empire __ // Economic and Social Disorder, 1800-1839 // -Qing’s 1600 conquests brought stability to central China --recovered farmland, opened uncultivated areas, and restored and expanded roads and canal systems - -(1650-1800) population doubled --(1800) population caused environmental damage in central and western China -increase in the unemployed and homeless -minorities from C. and SW. China complained about being driven off lands -Mongols opposed harassment of their grazing lands and traditional elites -mistrust of government with suspect of corrupted officials -White Lotus Rebellion (1794-1804) increased internal conflicts across central China --techniques of defense and attack of village militias used in conflict were helpful in trying to defend against British invasions - -1794-1804) increased internal conflicts across central China --techniques of defense and attack of village militias used in conflict were helpful in trying to defend against British invasions // The Opium War and Its Aftermath // -Qing ignorant of European and American merchants’ profit from smuggling opium into China and British’s naval base at Singapore  -(1729) first Qing law banning opium imports publicized  -(1800) opium smuggling were high  -government debated over whether to legalize and tax opium or strictly enforce ban  -(1839) British forces arrived at S. China coast for fear of opium economy downfall with Qing’s ban  -**Opium War**- (1839-1842) War between Britain and the Qing Empire that was, in the British view, occasioned by the Qing government’s refusal to permit the importation of opium into its territories. The victorious British imposed the one-sided Treaty of Nanking on China --British excelled in sea, had long range artillery, and had gunboats for shallow waters --Qing troops moved on foot with few and inefficient weapons -**Bannermen**- hereditary military servants of the Qing Empire, in large part descendants of peoples of various origins who had fought for the founders of the empire - -used matchlocks (soldiers had to ignite gunpowder by hand) with fire hazards - -most had no guns -**Treaty of Nanking**- (1842) the treaty that concluded the Opium War. Awarded Britain a large compensation from Qing Empire, denied the Qing government tariff control over some of its own borders, opened additional ports of residence to Britons, and surrender Hong Kong to Britain --British residents gained extraterritoriality --Qing set a tax of 5% on imports and paid Britain 21 million ounces of silver for starting war -**treaty ports**- cities opened to foreign residents as a result of the forced treaties between the Qin Empire and foreign signatories. In the treaty ports, foreigners enjoyed extraterritoriality --(1842) increased from Canton to Canton, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo, and Shanghai --(1900) 90 treaty ports in China -**most-favored-nation status**- a clause in a commercial treaty that awards to any later signatories all the privileges previously granted to the original signatories --prevented colonization of China ---if land were given to one country, the all other countries would have land too -(1860) treaty legalized foreigner’s right to import opium -(1858 and 1860) treaty giving districts north and south of Amur River to Russia -(late 1800s) France ended Vietnam’s vassalage to Qing -local Chinese became laborers -Europeans and Americans lived in zones and went to exclusive places the Chinese were not allowed in -Christian missionaries offered hospitality as well as trying to undermine Confucian beliefs, by reproving ancestor worship, pressuring poor families to put children into orphanages, or going against foot-binding // The Taiping Rebellion, 1850-1864 // -**Taiping Rebellion**- (1853-1864) the most destructive civil war before the 20th century. A Christian-inspired rural rebellion threatened to topple the Qing Empire --unstable agriculture and unwanted trades --ethnic divisions and lowliest trade given to minority group (Hakkas) --20-30 million deaths caused by starvation and disease from sieges --destroyed cultivated areas in C. and E. China - -cities (Shanghia) endured siege --E. Chinese cultural centers had lost masterpieces, burnt libraries, and destroyed printing blocks --(1855) Yellow River changed course and flooded Shangdong province and started drought decades northern Shandong -Hong Xiuquan was founder of Taiping movement - -humble Hakka background - -failed government examination several times - -interpreted the Chrisian message --called movement the “Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace” that attracted many believers, mostly Hakkas -- -ecstatic trances ---believed Manchus were creatures of Satan ---spread of loyalty enlarged -Taipings replaced anti-Chinese appeals (used to enlist Hakkas) with anti-Manchu rhetoric for enlisting Chinese --forced captured villages to join movement --activities were monitored --separated and organized mena nd women into work and military teams --women banned from foot binding (not a Hakka custom) --many women became working women or soldiers against Qing -Confucian elites feared idea of foreign gods, totalitarian rule, and working warring women -(1853) Nnanjing became capital for Taiping -Qing forces became successful --Taiping had problems of organization and growing numbers - -imperial military commanders became more flexible during conflicts --provincial governors supported commanders and created an efficient organization with modern weaponry --formation of new military unites --court agreed to special tax for funding --surrounded Nanjing to starve themselves --Taiping able to survive for more than a decade -(1856) Britain and France turned attention to China after Crimean War --criticize Taiping’s impious Christian movement --(1856) second opium war called the Arrow war (1856-1860) ---invasion of Beijing and taking over Summer Palace (1860) --joined Qing’s forces against Taipings -(1850s) Nian (“Bands”) in N. China was Qing’s new threat -after rebellion was suppressed, Taipings went to Laos and Vietnam, which had bubonic plague that spread to Hong Kong --spread to Singapore, San Francisco, Calcutta, and London --Chinese immigrants were likely carriers -- -(1882) United States ban Chinese immigration // Decentralization at the End of the Qing Empire, 1864-1875 // -Qing’s treasure was bankrupted --indemnities after the Opium and Arrow Wars made matters worse --rice production drastically decreased --dispersed population --refugees plead for relief --troops demanded wages -Robert Hart became Britain inspector-general of Imperial Maritime Customs Service to make sure China can pay debt to Britain --collected revenues to be split among China and Britain --smooth communications with Britons and Americans working for Qing government -provincial governors won right to impose own tax, created own troops, and run own bureaucracies -Zeng Guofan supervised programs restoring agriculture, communications, education, and publishing and reforming military and armaments manufacture - -favored US’ help more than Britain and hired American advisors - -sponsored program to send Chinese boys to Hartford, Connecticut for education - -encouraged educated mothers - -died in 1872 -aristocrat alliance supported reform and recovery programs -(after 1880s) Cixi the “Empress Dowager” --seen as corrupt and arrogant --(1860s and 1870s) supported provincial governors -lack of strong, central, unified leadership -(1860s onward) Qing Empire separated into large power zones were provincial governors handed over leadership to their protégés // Conclusion // -Crimean and Opium war was the European pressure for Ottoman and China to reform -all three governments had traditional concerns and responded to European demands --sultans believe it was important to strengthen the central government to prevent territorial lost --emperors faced population growth and agricultural decline leading to rebellions - -tsars focused on expansion -Europeans and Americans wanted trade rights in China -Russian, France, and Britain wanted equality for Christians and freedom from competition in eastern Mediterranean -(1st 2 decades of 20th century) fall of three empires -Russia considered part of Europe while other two were considered foreign --based on religion, enthusiasm of westernization for European cultural trends, and Russia’s role in defeating Napoleon (brought tsars into Europe’s highest councils of royal decision)