Ch+23+Outline

Chapter 23: NATION BUILDING AND ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION IN THE AMERICAS, 1800-1890 =__ Independence in Latin America, 1800-1830 __=

// Roots of Revolution, to 1810 //
-(1800) revolutionary documents circulated in Latin America -local born members of elites and middle classes were angry at power of colonial officials, high taxes, and imperial monopolies -Napoleon’s invasion in Portugal (1807) and Spain (1808) led to L. America’s struggle for independence -(1808) King John VI (Portugal) fled to Brazil and handled court there -Napoleon forced Ferdinand VII to give Joseph Bonaparte the throne -Spanish patriots against French created Junta Central (institution to govern Spain while king remained a French prisoner) - -Junta able to exercise king’s powers over Spain’s colonies - -elites objected to Junta ---wanted local juntas and self-govern until Ferdinand’s return to throne -(late 1808-1809) movements overthrowing Spanish colonial officials in Venezuela, Mexico, and modern Bolivia - -local junta created --repression of leaders caused rise of a sense of a separate nationality -(1810) revolutions for independence

// Spanish South America, 1810-1825 //
-(1211) revolutionary Junta led by Creoles (colonial-born whites) in Carcas decalred independence - -supported sovereignty and representative democracy - -leaders defended slavery and opposed full citizenship for mix-race --goal was to expand privileges by eliminating Spaniards elites in governments and church -loyolists rallied tfree blacks and slaves to defend Spanish Empire -**Simon Bolivar**- (1783-1830) most important military leader in the independence struggle in S. America. Born in Venezuela, he led military forces there and in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia - -studied the Enlightenment - -used personality to mobilize political support and hold loyalty - -attracted new allies and built coalitions --success by enlisting English veterans of Napoleonic Wars and Spain military revolt (1820) ---revolt caused Ferdinand VII to accept a constitution to limit powers of monarch and church - -army occupied Peru and Boliva after freeing Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador --united Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador into Gran Colombia and Peru with Bolivia -- -failed by 1830 -Buenos Aires was important center for revolutionary activity --news of Ferdinand VII’s resignation led to creation of junta overthrowing viceroy (1810) ---junta claimed loyalty to king to avoid loyalists’ opposition but dropped claim after king regained throne (1814, after Napoleon’s defeat) ---(1816) declared independence as United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata --patriots first tried to gain control over the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata but failed --unable to control regional rivalries and political differences --(1817) supported mixed force of Chileans and Argentines led by Jose de San Martin (1778-1850) -- -troop of former slaves -- -(1820) defeated at Peru after victory in Chile -- -(1824) surrendered command of forces in Peru to Bolivar

// Mexico, 1810-1823 //
-(1810) wealthiest and most populous colony of Spain - -silver mine --Mexico City was larger tan any Spanish city --largest population of Spanish immigrants --Spaniards dominated government, church, and economy --conservatives in Mexico City overthrew local viceroy who was too sympathetic to Creoles after Napoleon’s invasion of Spain ---colonial authority rested on force -central Mexico was first stage in revolution against Spain - -farmers forced Amerindian communities out of agricultural lands - -high food prices and rising unemployment --weakened authorities ---led to anger and fear -**Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla**- (1753-1811) Mexican priest leading first stage of Mexican independence war in 1810. captured and executed in 1811. - -(September 16, 1810) gave speech urging others to go against oppression of Spanish officials -initially supportive Mexicans soon recognized threat of Hidalgo’s masses - -turned against him and execution of Hidalgo followed -**Jose Maria Morelos**- (1765-1814) Mexican priest and former student of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, he led the forces fighting for Mexican independence until he was captured and executed in 1814 - -(1813) created congress declaring independence and drafting a constitution -(1821) Colonol Agustin de Iturbide and other loyalist commanders allied with remaining rebels and declared Mexico’s independence --decided to create monarchial government and crown Iturbide as emperor -(early 1823) Iturbide overthrown and Mexico declared a republic

// Brazil, to 1831 //
-Portuguese royal family arrival helped maintain loyalty of colonial elite and local economy -after Napoleon’s defeat, King John VI returned to Portugal -(1820) liberal revolt in Portugal and Portuguese military garrison in Rio de Janeiro forced king to permit creating juntas -(1821) John returned to Portugal to protect throne - -son Pedro left in Brazil as regent to protect claims -(1820) revolutions and civil war along Brazil’s orders - -Argentina and Paraguay gained independence -(1822) Pedro declared Brazilian independence -Brazil had a constituional monarchy government with Pedro as emperor - -(1824) constitution written under direction of Pedro -- -elected assembly and protections for political opposition - -made enemies by trying to protect remain Portuguese in brazil --opposed slavery in a nation of dominating slave-owning class - -(1830) treaty with Great Britain to end Brazilian participation in slave trade --military forces controlling Urugauy --(1831) resigned throne to five year old Pedro II   ---(1889) overthrown by republicans =__ The Problem of Order, 1825-1890 __=

// Constitutional Experiments //
-new constitutions disagreed upon - -(1789) US rewrote constitution --(1811-1833) Venezuela and Chile went through 9 constitutions -more British N. American colonists were able to vote and hold political office then people in Portugal and Spain --British citizens accustomed to elections, political parties, and factions --(1812-1814) Spanish Americans experienced little constitutional government and elections that were disrupted by revolutions -every new American republic limited right to vote to free men of property -British Canada divided into separate colonies and territories --each colony dominated by a provincial governor and appointed advisory councils --elected assemblies with limited power w/in each province --(1837) rebellion to end oligarchic rule and make government responsive to will of assemblies ---(1840s) Britain established government with limited self-rule in each province -**Confederation of 1867**- negotiated union of the formerly separate colonial governments of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. This new Dominion of Canada with a central government in Ottawa is seen as the beginning of the Canadian nation --“birthday of a new nationality” -Latin American nations experimented with political institutions --Bolivar wrote first constitution of five S. American republics -difficulty in defining role of L. American Catholic Church after independence --religious monopoly and dominated education during colonial times --power reduced by constitutions permitting practice of other religions - -church organized allies and financed movements ---conflicts until late 19th century for separation between church and state or supporting church’s traditional power -militaries resisted civilian control due to few citizens willing to support civilian politicians that were against the military - -Pedro I and Brazil was exception to pattern

// Personalist Leaders //
-military leaders used personal followings to gain political leadership --military reputation was foundation for personal political power -**personalist leaders**- political leaders who rely on charisma and their ability to mobilize and direct the masses of citizens outside the authority of constitutions and laws. 19th century examples include Jose Antonio Paez of Venezuela and Andrew Jackson of the United States. 20th century examples include Getulio Vargas of Brazil and Juan Peron of Argentina --caudillo- a L. American personalist leader who gained and held political power without constitutional sanction -**Andrew Jackson**- (1767-1845) first president of the United States to be born in humble circumstances. Popular among frontier residents, urban workers, and small farmers. Had a successful political career as judge, general, congressman, senator, and president. After being denied the presidency in 1824 in a controversial election, he won the 1828 and was reelected in 1832 --(1815) defeated British the Battle of New Orleans and seized Florida from Spanish (1818) --blended populist political style supporting commoners with support for policies promoting powerful groups -**Jose Antonio Paez**- (1790-1873) Venezuelan soldier who led Simon Bolivar’s cavalry force. Became a successful general in the war and built a powerful political base. He was unwilling to accept the constitutional authority of Bolivar’s government and distant Bogota and declared Venezuela’s independence from Bran Colombia in 1829 --uneducated and poor --natural guerrilla leader and helped Bolivar build a political base in Venezuela - -(1829) declared Venezuela’s independence --ruled for president/dictator for 18 years -(1900) every L. American nation experienced periods of dictatorship

// The Threat of Regionalism //
-(after 1823 overthrow of Iturbide) regional politicians split with Mexico and created the independent Republic of C. America --(1820s-1830) civil wars and rivalries led to republic’s breakup and creation of five separate nations -Argentian’s liberals took over Buenos Aires - -promoted secular education, free trade, and immigration from Europe -conserrvatives supported Catholic Church’s traditional control of education and protection from European imports - -(1819) Buenos Aires constitution ignored concerns and led to rebellion -Juan Manuel de Rosas dominated Argentina --(1852) overthrown by an alliance of enemies -regionalism in United States --creation of Senate --House of Representatives to divide slave and free slaves --(1830s-1840s) rising immigrants to Northern states --(1803) S. states supported Louisiana Purchase (agreement with France that transferred to the United States a vast territory extending from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada), statehood for Texas, and war with Mexico -(1860) Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) elected president of United States --preserve Union -Confederate States of America formed to separate from Union -US Civil War (1861-1865) between Confederate and Union --(1865) ended with Confederacy surrender --Union victory led to abolition of slavery

// Foreign Interventions and Regional Wars //
-some W. Hemisphere nations had to defend against Europeans after gaining independence -(end of 19th century) US, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile established themselves as regional powers -War of 1812 between England and US with burning of White House and Capitol (1814) --(end of 19th century) US was the greatest military power -(1898-1899) war against Spain expanded American empire to that reached from Philippines to Puerto Rico -British naval forces violated Brazil’s waters to stop slave imports -Mexico defeated Spanish invasion (1829) and French assault on Veracruz (1838) -(1820s) Mexico encouraged Americans to immigrate to Texas (belonging to Mexico) --(early 1830s) Americans outnumbered Mexicans in Texas --(1835) rebellion in Texas by alliance of Mexican liberals and American settlers --(1836) gained independence --(1845) declared a state with a war with Mexico a year later --(1848) peace treaty after US’ capture of Mexico City ---Mexico gave up New Mexico, Arizona and California for $15 million -**Benito Juarez**- (1806-1872) President of Mexico (1858-1872). Born in poverty in Mexico, he was educated as a layer and rose to become chief justice of the Mexican Supreme Court and then president. Led Mexico’s resistance to a French invasion (1863) and the installation of Maximillian as emperor. --(1867) drove French army out of Mexico and executed Maximilian -Chile as leading military and economic power of S. America’s west coast --(1836-1839) defeated Confederation of Peru and Bolivia --(1879) investors in nitrate mines in Atacama Desert ---started war with Peru and Bolivia (War of the Pacific) (1881) Chile won -(1820s) Argentina and Brazil fount over Uruguay -(1865) Uruguay, Argentina, and Brazil against Paraguay (War of the Triple Alliance) --Paraguay suffered military occupation, lost of territory, and forced to open markets to foreign trades

// Native Peoples and the Nation-State //
-(1790-1810) thousands of settlers entered Amerindians territories -indigenous leaders seeked for British officials in Canada for help --(1794) defeated during Battle of Fallen Timbers in Ohio -**Tecumseh**- (1768-1813) Shawnee leader who attempted to organize an Amerindian confederacy to prevent the loss of additional territory to American settlers. Became an ally of the British in War of 1812 and died in battle -(1820s) white settlers forced native peoples out of land -(1830) Indian Removal Act to force resettlement of the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, and other eastern peoples to land west of Mississippi River --Trail of Tears with forced migrants dying during journey -indigenous peoples of Great Plains were skilled users of horse and firearms -Great Plains women lost prestige to male hunters -native peoples were disrupted of the trade with E. merchants and suspension of payments pledged by treaties during Civil War --forced to give up land and customs -(1865) Comanche (dominated S. plains during the period of Spanish and Mexican rule) gave up most of their land in Texas -Souis and allies reisted --(1876) overwhelmed General George Armstrong Custer and the 7th Calvary in the Battle of Little Bighorn --forced to reservation life -(1870s-1880s) military campaigns broke Apache resistance -Argentine and Chilean govt. depended on gift giving and prisoner exchanges between Amerindians --(1860s) prosperity influenced them to go against Amerindians --(1870) Argentina defeated native resistance --(1870s) Mapuches defeated by Chile and their modern weapons -(1847) Maya rebelled -**Caste War**- a rebellion of the Maya people against the govt. of Mexico in 1847. Nearly returned the Yucatan to Maya rule. Some Maya rebels retreated to unoccupied territories where they held out until 1901 --Maya rebels created an independent state (Empire of the Cross) =__ The Challenge of Social and Economic Change __=

// The Abolition of Slavery //
-**abolitionists**- men and women who agitated for a complete end to slavery. Abolitionist pressure ended the British transatlantic slave trade in 1808 and slavery in British colonies in 1834. In the US, the activities of abolitionists were one factor leading to the Civil War (1861-1865) --slavery survived until 1850s -US slavery weakened by northern abolitionists and 1808 termination of slave trade --stalled by cotton agriculture -agricultural products produced by slaves --Brazil and cuba increased slave imports as plantation products prices rose -US abolitionists believing slavery was against morality and universal rights of Declaration of Independence -women and free African-Americans denied full rights of citizenship under Constitution -Frederick Douglass became an effective abolitionist speaker and writer -(1843) Henry Highland Garnet attended the National Colored Convention -(1850s) Republican Party forced confrontation between slave and free states -Lincoln issued the emancipation Proclamation, ending slavery in rebel states not occupied by the Union Army - -(1865) final abolition after the war w/ 13th amendment -“Jim Crow” laws separating blacks in public transportation, jobs, and schools -(1830) Brazil signed treaty with Britain to end slave trade - still illegally imported slaves before British navy forced compliance (1850s) --(1850s-60s) Pedro II and liberals worked to abolish slavery -(1888) Brazil abolished slavery -Caribbean region with 40% of all imported African slaves --fear of new slave rebellions led to little enthusiasm of free settlers arguing for independence or local support for abolition -(1833) abolition ended in British colonies - -“freed” slaves became “apprentices” -(1820) Britain put pressure to weaken slavery in Cuba and Puerto Rico -(1880) all Cuban slaves (not born after September 18, 1868) were freed if served masters for 8 more years - -(1886) conditions eliminated and slavery abolished -(1895) Cuban war with multiracial alliance for independence

// Immigration //
-(1500-1760) African slaves outnumbered European immigrants -immigration promoted urbanization and fastest growing cities had large immigrant populations -Europeans accounted for most of the immigrants entering in 19th century -(1850) Asian immigrant increased -Asians were often victims of violence and discrimination --(1870s and 1880s) anti –Chinese riots in US  - -(1882) Chinese Exclusion Act eliminating most Chinese immigration - -Japanese immigrants faced prejudice in Brazil and East Indians in Caribbean -schools used to transmit cultural backgrounds to children of immigrants

// American Cultures //
-immigrants created ethnic organizations and districts -**acculturation**- the adoption of the language, customs, values, and behaviors of host nations by immigrants -immigrants learned nation language to increase earnings

// Women’s Rights and the Struggle for Social Justice //
-**Women’s Rights Convention**- an 1848 gathering of women angered by their exclusion from an international antislavery meeting. They met at Seneca Falls, New York to discuss women’s rights --focused on right to vote, better conditions for working women economic independence, and full legal rights -(until 1895) Canadian women couldn’t earn medical degree -(1900) Canadian women gained right to vote in some elections -Argentina and Uruguay were first L. American nations to provide public education for women -(19th century) working-class women changed gender relations by working outside of homes -US blacks denied right to vote -common racial discrimination in L. America but no formal racial segregation -demand for education access, right to vote, and greater economic opportunity

// Development and Underdevelopment //
-(19th century) only United States was industrialized -(1900) United States, Canada, and Argentina achieved similar individual income as Europeans --open land, temperate climates, diverse resources, and immigrant flow -copper, zinc, lead, coal, and tin demands led to mining in W US, Mexico, and Chile -governments promoting railroads by granting tax benefits, free land, and monopoly rights -steamships lowered transportation costs -telegraph sped up information about product demand and availability -distance prevented Argentina to export fresh meat or live cattle to Europe - -solved by railroads and telegraphs -barbed wire -**development**- in the 19th and 20th centuries, the economic process that led to industrialization, urbanization, the rise of a large and prosperous middle class, and heavy investment in education -**underdevelopment**- condition experienced by economies that depend on colonial forms of production such as the export of raw materials and plantation crops with low wages and low investment in education -Argentina was only L. American nation to reach Canada and US’ prosperity -US benefits from diversified economy --rapid population due to immigration, individual wealth, widespread landownership, and high literacy rates helped economy --(1890s) dominating in steel production -Canada’s Confederation of 1867 (second period of global economic expansion) -raw-material export competition - -sugar, coffee, nitrates, and copper -L. American economy was a boom and bust - -oversupply and low prices

// Altered Environments //
-(19th century) Cuban planters cut down many of island’s forests for sugar plantation expansion -(1870) S. Carolina and Georgia abandoned crop rotation for short-term increase in cotton production, leading to soil exhaustion and erosion -use of plows to eliminate native grasses and increase soil erosion -Brazilian coffee planters exhausted soil fertility -Timber and Stone Act of 1878 --US govt. sold public land to individual and corporations at low cost -mining increased erosion and pollution -Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909) and John Muir preserved areas -(1885) Banff as first Canadian national park =__ Conclusion __= -ideas from Enlightenment and national identity led to struggle for independence -Napoleon’s invasions initiating L. America’s independence -personalist leaders resistances toward constitution’s limits -industrialization - -raw materials and energy -native people forced to resettle to reservations -(1900) almost all American nation was wealthier, better educated, more democratic, and more populous