1914-present2009

Chapter 28 - The Crisis of the Imperial Order, 1900-1929 - p735 [|Chapter 28] - if someone wants to import these into the notes and answer them... go for it! - Mr. W.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria shot in imperialized Bosnia-Herzegovina by Gavrilo Princip (1914). Started World War I, with the global powers fighting. Industrialization, violence, and technological change happened rapidly in time period. i. Origins of the Crisis in Europe and the Middle East - p736 20th century began with peace under the main powers if the time. Technology and economics boomed. Two changes started instability of world powers: Germany challenged Britain and France, and Ottomans grew weak causing power vacuum. The Ottoman Empire and the Balkans Ottomans were weakest group in nineteenth century. Ottomans lost province to Europe. European meddling in Ottoman affairs and disintegration lead to rebellion and upheaval. Young Turks took over Ottoman and began to change the entire Ottoman system. Nationalism, Alliances, and Military Strategy- Leaders los control after assassination due to nationalism (us against them), military and political alliances of world powers for protection, and Germany wanting to rule Europe. Nationalism united the citizens and gave them purpose. Nationalism also created hates or purposes for war and dislikes between separate “nations.” Recent wars were seen as “good things” that bonded nations together and solved social problems. Germany threatened all of Europe with high industry and Britain had great naval “dreadnought” power. Europe divided into pre-war blocs. Military planning contributed to alliance problems concerning railways and transportation of troops. July 28, Germany declared war on Serbia. Communication and planning caused war planning to take effect and war happened automatically due to treaties. Russia wanted to protect Serbia and France backed them. Britain protected Belgium and fought Germany. ii. The "Great War" and the Russian Revolutions, 1914-1918 - p738 War greeted as good at first. War thought to end quickly. War changed Russia the most, socially, technologically, and politically. Stalemate, 1914-1917- war known as “Great War” until WWII. Old military tactics did not work anymore due to new ways of war. Germans won many early battles and took all of Belgium by September. Germans had momentum but were tired and stretched. When Russia attacked from the east, Germans had no second line. A Western front of prepared trenches and barriers arose, a solid line of defense. Warfare was newer, bloodier, and more gruesome than ever before. 1916 was the bloodiest year. Sea battles were inconclusive with Britain and Germany rarely fighting. Germany had submarines that shot at everything, killed 1198 people of a cruise liner Lusitania. Machine guns, early tanks, poison gas, and trenches now part of war. The Home Front and the War Economy- rations on citizens began, and stronger controls on economic life developed. Unemployment vanished. Foreign workers hired in Europe. Women also found new work. Germans had no oversea trade after British blockade. Germans began to eat and use sawdust for food. Soldiers and citizens were hungry. European African colonies also were rationed off. Requisition of resources from colonies to Europe happened. Africans often fought alongside Europeans in war. United States was very rich during time period. First, supplied Britain and France but soon joined war and reaped the profit of war. Ottoman at War- Turks signed secret alliance with Germans. Wanted to gain Russian land. Removed Armenians from Turkey and had many of them killed. Turks closed Dardanelles strait. British caused Arab revolt against Turks with Hussein ibn Ali. Son Faisal led army to fight Ottomans and led to ultimate collapse of Ottomans. British promised help for Jews by supporting Zionism like beliefs of Theodore Herzl to create new Jewish homeland. British Zionist Chaim Weizmann convinced Britain to make Balfour Declaration which caused controversy between Jews and Palestinians. Britain also went to Mesopotamia to get natural gases. Double Revolution in Russia- Russia started with most soldiers. Russia was ill-advised and soon was defeated both militarily and economically. Russia was full of corruption as citizens starved and leaders feasted. Russia ran out of food. Revolts happened and tsar stepped down to be replaced by Alexander Kerensky, leader for the Provisional Government. Revolutionary groups came out of hiding. The Social Democrats split to create the Mensheviks (classic socialism) and the Bolsheviks (radical Leninism). Vladimir Lenin was leader of Bolsheviks. Lenin was supported by tired soldiers and citizens. Provisionary Government ordered attack and Russian soldiers deserted. Lenin overthrew Provisional Government in “October Revolution.” Bolsheviks nationalized land. Cheka created to kill/arrest resistance. Russia sued for peace yet lost much land to other European nations. The End of the War in Western Europe, 1917-1918- Woodrow Wilson kept the US neutral in World War I for three years. German submarines provoked US into war. Western front was even until US arrived. Germans made push forward successfully at first yet soon were pushed back and overwhelmed. Many German soldiers had the flu. Germany fell apart. November 11 at 11am war stopped in West. iii. Peace and Dislocation in Europe, 1919-1929 - p745 War lasted four years yet Europe took more than eight years to recover. Tensions and economies internationally were in foul states. The Impact of the War- War was the most devastating war to record. 8 million were dead after war. Refugees also were factors post-war. Immigration laws put in place to stop immigrant refugees. Influenza pandemic was byproduct of war. More Americans died to flu than actual warfare. Environment ruined by war. Environment made agriculture difficult. The Peace Treaties- Post-war delegates met in Paris for peace talks. Talks dominated by US President Wilson, British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, and French Premier Georges Clemenceau. They ignored lesser nations and pushed their own agendas. Wilson wanted to create League of Nations (EPIC FAIL). Lloyd George wanted to punish Germany with heavy indemnity, and Clemenceau wanted to create buffer state between France and Germany. Treaty of Versailles made and accepted. Germans lost land to Poland and not allowed to have air force. Germany also had to pay for damages which was vaguely explained as accepting “responsibility for causing all the losses and damage” of the war. Left Germany in intense debt. Austro-Hungarian Empire fell apart from treaty of Saint-German creating the subsequent nations of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. New nations were safe only if Russia and Germany were not militarily active and dominant. Russian Civil War and the New Economic Policy- Bolshevik Revolution raged on while peace present in rest of Europe. Communists (Bolsheviks) held central Russia with discipline and anti-Bolsheviks led by former tsars and Allied forces and foreign intervention fought to eliminate the Bolsheviks and end the Russian civil war. Many died and starved due to war and subsequent famine. Red Army of Communists strong and stubborn and well-organized. Bolsheviks conquered many lands and soon created the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) by adding Ukraine, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan to the Communists cause and thinking. These regions were very useful for their oil fields and their abundant farmland. NEP or New Economic Policy allowed for private property for small peasants and businesses and free trade among those groups with large companies still government controlled. Bended Communists goals and forced industrialization upon peasants. Lenin died and Trotsky (former commander Red Army) and Stalin (Secretary General USSR) contended for position. Stalin won and put Trotsky on exile. An Ephemeral Peace- 1920s were filled with progress that hid tensions. After war Germans felt cheated, French and British wanted pre-war standards to return, Italians wanted more land, Arabs and India longed for independence, Chinese looked for less foreign intrusion, Japan wanted to intrude on China, Russia wanted to spread revolution and Communism. After war Europe readjusted for five years (1919-1923) and then re-grew peace and economics for six years (1924-1929). Germans had the most extreme inflation ever in 1923. 1924 Germans joined League of Nations. Money flowed from New York to Germany to Britain and France and then back to US and subsequently helped the European economy get back into proper shape. Governments (even Bolshevik Russians) were more cautious and businesslike in all manners politically. League of Nations helped many issues yet lacked the power to maintain peace and enforce regulations. iv. China and Japan: Contrasting Destinies - p750 China and Japan had common civilizations and Western pressures yet had completely opposite modern histories. China was more reluctant to change while Japan hoped to reap the profits of modern ideas. Social and Economic Change- China had very large population with very little farmland and old techniques for inefficient farming. Yellow River constantly needed work and support due to massive floods. Japan had very little farmland and relied on China for much of its food and materials. Chinese high society gained money off government monopolies on salt and iron. Chinese foreign trade affected foreign policy and politics. Chinese port cities saw more outside influence and had more resentment against Chinese government. Japan had a quickly expanding economy that exported mainly textiles, consumer goods, and munitions. Japan’s economy flourished during WWI and grew eight times faster than China’s after Japan industrialized. Japan used hydroelectric damns to create electricity in its cities. Economic growth created social tensions between modern individuals and traditional individuals. Japanese companies like Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Yasuda, and Mitsui flourished while peasants were poor. Japanese economy depended on trade and imperialism. Japan was vulnerable to economic swings. Revolution and War, 1900-1918- Chinese Empress tried to eliminate all foreigners from China. Chinese people decided Qing needed to be eliminated. Empress died and Revolutionary Alliance led by Sun Yat-sen (a multinational Chinese who had planned to overthrow Qing for years) took over China. China soon began led by warlords and not a central government. Yuan Shiki was the most powerful warlord and was soon the leader of the Chinese republic after the Qing abdicated the thrown. Sun reorganized his politics into the Guomindang but Yuan rejected any Western ideas. Japan supported the Allies in WWI to invest in their interests. Japan then profited from involvement. Japan conquered German island colonies and looked to China. The Twenty-One Demands wanted to turn China into a protectorate but was not fully accepted. Nonetheless, Japan was deeply influencing China. Chinese Warlords and the Guomindang, 1919-1929- Japan took German islands and offended China by doing so. China’s warlord generals neglected care of state and ran opium trade through their regions. Sun Yat-Sen was reforming Chinese politics along lines similar to Leninist Communism. Sun died and passed on China to Chiang Kaishek. 1927 Chiang led armies to go to crush regional warlords and reform China. Warlords were defeated and promises were not withheld as the current administration after the Qing Empire was weak and corrupt and left china in poverty for many years. v. The New Middle East - p752 Arabs expected say in European and International workings but got none and rather was a target for imperialism. The Mandate System- European counties wanted to divide and conquer leftover German and Ottoman territories yet US wanted self-determination. Mandate system was created so that nations would be protected yet ruled at the same time. Mandates were split into classes: Class C (undeveloped, colonized) Class B (undeveloped but more civilized, ruled by League of Nations essentially) and Class A (large developed and educated, protected yet new independent countries). The Rise of Modern Turkey- Ottoman Empire collapsed and Europeans wanted territory. Greeks wanted Anatolia but were stopped by Mustafa Kemal. Kemal became national hero and soon reformed the nation faster and more efficiently than other regions. Kemal abolished sultanate, declared a secular republic, created schools, westernized region, equality for women, gave last names, and prohibited the veil. Arab Lands and the Question of Palestine- Arab mandate system caused revolts as hey went from Ottoman oppression to foreign occupation. Middle East changed rapidly due to cars and higher populations. Also foreign countries tried to get at their land and create imperialism in region. Britain tried to hide imperialism with bribes and intimidations as well as phony independence. Britain caused revolts, used bombers, and tricked countries into a form of imperialism. Jews began to accumulate in Palestine after Balfour Declaration and caused social tension and controlled immigration. vi. Society, Culture, and Technology in the Industrialized World - p757 War changed society and goals for rebuilding Europe and the rest of the world. Class and Gender- Class distinctions faded after war. Legacy of ruling power died and middle class grew. Government grew and expanded services like freeways and schools. White collar workforce grew in demand and supply. Working class did not expand as machines often had “jobs” now. Women had more social growth than anyone else. They grew in rights to work and play sports. Women gained right to vote in US 1920 after 19th amendment. Politics did not change radically due to women’s suffrage. Women also participated in social reform and community help. Margaret Sanger advocated contraception and was very controversial. Only other nation besides US to allow contraceptive at times was Russians. Revolution in the Sciences- Physics was area most explored for science in time period. Scientists found that atoms are made of smaller divisible particles. Max Planck found that atoms let of minute particles of energy. Albert Einstein created the theory of relativity and said that matter and time and space are all related. Scientists revealed secrets of nature and common life through equations. Social sciences also advanced. Sigmund Freud was a psychologist that said the ID was still present in everyone and Emile Durkheim said all religions were true in some form. Cultural relativism was stopped as European superiority was questioned. The New Technologies of Modernity- Mass consumption was common in US but lacked in Europe. Nonetheless, European technology and science was very advanced. Airplanes were made by Orville and Wilbur Wright and were flown often for crowd amusement. Electricity usage climbed dramatically. Radio stations broadcast news and entertainment for public listening. Film also began to be an important form of entertainment. Viewers soon got to have sound and US film watching climbed to staggering new heights. Health and hygiene improved after war. Wound disinfectants, x-ray machines, and overall health knowledge was instituted. Hygiene altered private life dramatically as new products came out for cleanliness. Technology and the Environment- The skyscraper and the automobile drastically altered the urban and rural landscape. US architects built high rise skyscrapers to house large companies or organizations. European buildings were often innovative and smart. Assembly lines created massive amounts of cats automatically and soon cars were on the road for very cheap. Suburbia was soon created for commuting workers in cars to go into the big city. Rural highways were made for driving long distances through non-modern or agricultural areas. Cars also affected agriculture as horses were no longer needed for tractors as gasoline powered tractors were made. Dams also were made that inflicted harm against the environment.

Chapter 29 - The Collapse of the Old Order, 1929-1949 - p765 [|Chapter 29] - if someone wants to import these into the notes and answer them... go for it! - Mr. W.

i. The Stalin Revolution - p766 Stalin had control of USSR and led it through social and economic revolution that gave power to communism Five-Year Plans- Stalin helped in Revolutions of 1917. Took control of USSR and wanted to turn it into industrial nation. Industrialize to create power for Communism domestically and worldwide. Wanted to never lose to Germany again, so he created the Five-Year Pans to double output of electricity and heavy industry for good of nation. Rapid Industrialization caused rapid environmental change. Collectivization of Agriculture- Stalin put collectivization into place by consolidating small private farms into large commonly owned field on which the peasants would work. Collectives had to give food to government and keep the remains. Collectivism made so that peasants couldn’t withhold food from government. Kulaks or more wealthy peasants were against collectivization of agriculture and were subsequently enslaved, arrested, or killed. Stalin’s second Five-Year Plan increased heavy industry for the creation of armament yet caused the drop in consumer goods and Russian people were again poor. Terror and Opportunities- Stalin created NKVD to enforce and scare all the Russians into lives of work and obedience. Stalin was not trusting of anyone and soon killed or eliminated many people. Stalin put all “Old Bolsheviks” and former Lenin supporters under charges of treason and eventually killed or eliminated all of them, weakening the Red Army. Terror reigned down on people and put many into gulags or had them killed. Terror created obedient workers. New opportunities for women and hard workers arose due t Stalin’s revolutions and many supported Stalin and his ideas. Stalin avoided Great Depression ii. The Depression - p769 Black Thursday when stocks fell and economic depression occurred. October 24, 1929. Economic Crisis- Consumers cut spending and businesses cut production. Unemployment was 25%. Economy crumbled. 1930 US put on Smoot-Hawley tariffs to create domestic economy. Other nations retaliated and international commerce suffered. Depression in Industrial Nations- Three-way loaning system stopped and US got bad end of unpaid war loans. France and Britain got through depression by using colonialism on foreign lands and exposing their economies. All of world suffered due to economic depression except for Russia, who stayed fairly constant. Economic depression caused political reform- nationalists called for autarchy, capitalists called for government intervention, and many nations wanted war to stimulate economy. Depression in Nonindustrial Regions- The Depression reached nonindustrial regions but did not affect them as harshly as the industrial regions that were more dependent on the world economy and international loans and banks. Nonindustrial nations that depended on exports were hit very hard by Depression. South Africa had booming economy in gold during 1930’s. iii. The Rise of Fascism - p773 Many nations were insecure and scared during this time period and often blamed ethnic minorities (Jews) or turned to propaganda. Mussolini’s Italy- Italy turned to radical answers to solve problems. Older veterans of WWI banded together to create fascisti and intimidate workers or politicians. Benito Mussolini took over fascist Party and demanded leadership. Fascists created jobs but lowered general rights. Great propaganda usage. Hitler’s Germany- Nazi party in suffering Germany got attention during Great Depression. Hitler served in WWI for Germany, and got wounded. Wrote Mein Kampf and was rejected from most of society. Racists views concerning master race, alpine race, slave race, and Jews. Was leader of Nazi party. When Depression hit became popular and voted into office. Took over all government aspects and destroyed opposition. Economic and social planned worked for suffering Germany and was widely accepted. Proclaimed Furher and made Germany the Third Reich. Germans sacrificed political freedom for economic stability under Hitler and the Nazis. The Road to War 1933-1939- Hitler wanted to conquer not grow. He created armed forces and air force in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. Nobody wanted to stand up to Germany. Withdrew from League of Nations. Hitler conquered and annexed Austria and Czechoslovakia without resistance. Democracies lost power due to (1) dictators did not have to respect public consent (2) fear of Stalin, not Hitler and (3) the novelty and dishonesty of fascist tactics. Germany declared war. Created Axis with Italy. Germany invaded Poland. Allies scared and turn to Russia support, but Stalin doesn’t trust capitalists and splits Poland with Nazis. War begins September 1st 1939. iv. East Asia, 1931-1945 - p776 Japan lost all consumers of manufactured products and hit hard by Depression. Saw invasion of China as best solution by ultra-nationalists. The Manchurian Incident of 1931- Japanese occupied Chinese state of Manchuria. Japanese became impatient and conquered all of region and Beijing and Shanghai as well. Threatened by League of Nations and condemned by US, Japan resigned from League of Nations and continued to occupy Manchuria under a new name Manchukuo. The Chinese Communists and The Long March- Chiang Kai-shek led Chinese government and hoped to re-stabilize but met resistance from Communists. Communists were hidden in Guomindang for years until expelled. Mao Zedong was an important Communists leader that learned from Marx and Lenin. Mao was a strong communist, careful and composed leader, women’s rights advocate, and tactician. Harassed Chinese government with guerilla tactics but were soon surrounded. Retreated in Long March for a year and lost many Communists. Sino-Japanese War 1937-1945- Japanese needed economic solution for great depression. Against government will, many Japanese attacked and held Chinese land and cities like Beijing. Denounced by US and Britain, but were not punished due to economic problems and war in Europe. Japanese did not succeed as hoped for, rather were drained economically by Communist led resistance forces. Warfare was brutal and bloody. Chiang Kai-shek retreated to Sichuan and held up to defend against Japanese and Communists. Mao created capital in Yan’an and began to spread propaganda and rally forces behind he strict Communist discipline. v. The Second World War - p779 WWII was more destructive than WWI. Nationalism, science, technology, and industry led to mass destruction. The War of Movement- New technology allowed for offensive attacks to be prosperous. German Wehrmacht used Blitzkrieg to rapidly and effectively use planes, tanks, and men to destroy enemy troops. Aircraft carriers were introduced. War spread over vast stretches of land due to ease of travel and transport. War in Europe and North Africa- Germany invaded Poland alongside Russia. Russia gets Baltic republics. German continued to invade in short time spans and was able to conquer Netherlands and Belgium and attack France. France was well-equipped but fell quickly. Germany conquered all land between Spain and Russia. Germans sent planes over English Channel but were defeated. Hitler was frustrated with Britain and attacked Russia and took over Baltic States and Ukraine and most of European Russia with largest military attack in history. Germans attacked Stalingrad and met heavy resistance for months. Red Army eventually encircled and defeated Germans in Stalingrad. Italians and Mussolini attacked Northern Africa but Britain counter-attacked and defeated Italians quickly. Germans supported Italians but were defeated at El Alamein in North Egypt Germans expelled from Africa May 1943. War in Asia and the Pacific- Japanese saw collapse of France and War in Europe as opportunity to take over the riches of Southeast Asian European colonies. Attacked and took over colonies and were shut off of exports and then widened war against US and Europe. Attacked Pearl Harbor December 11 1941 and started full on War with US. US forced into war and began preparations. US sunk four of six crucial aircraft carriers at Battle of Midway, an essential battle. The End of the War- Battle of Stalingrad led Red Army further on toward Germany as they pushed the Eastern Front. Allies attacked Italy and Sicily then attacked occupied France at Normandy and pinched in toward Berlin and Germany. Despite pressure from both sides, Germans stood for long time and only collapsed when Hitler committed suicide. Japan held for longer due to less attention. US dropped atomic weapons at Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Japan eventually surrendered. War over. Chinese Civil War and Communists Victory- Guomindang supported by US after war, but Communists had a large following and conflict began to arise. Communists were better equipped and better organized. 1949 Mao Zedong announced the creation of Communist People’s Republic of China. vi. The Character of Warfare - p786 Death toll was huge (60 million). Refugees scattered all over globe and poverty was terrible. The War of Science- New sciences and technologies were developed (radar, new rubber, vaccines, and code-breaking). Aircraft were more advanced and technologically superior. Long-range missiles created. Nuclear weaponry was developed in this period. Bombing Raids- Bomb raids often targeted morale and killed women and children mostly. Britain and US were best and most strategic bombing squads with set plans and tactics. Bomb runs in Germany and Japan killed thousands of women and children. The Holocaust- Germans set to destroy entire races and ethnically cleanse. Nazis herded masses of Jews into concentration camps like Auschwitz for the Final Solution and extermination. Medical experiments and mass killings were common. Nazis also killed mentally ill, Gypsies, Smart Polish, and other “non-pure” races. The Home Front in Europe and Asia- Home Front and War Front were the same thing. Whole cities devastated or occupied as war swept over the nation. Citizens in nations worked to help build factories t support and aid the war effort. Citizens integrated into war if not involved directly in it. Germans could not build as fast as Russia and US. The Home Front in the United States- US flourished during war. US were safe from war due to oceans. Women were involved in war effort due to working for production of armament and consumer goods. US economy was good during war. Racial divides disappeared due to war. War and the Environment- War destroyed environment due to two factors. The first was battle itself that involved fire, bullets, bombs, and overall devastation. Second was industrial impact for creation of weapons, tanks, vehicles, and planes, along with barracks and runways. Industrial needs for mineral goods also ruined land.

Chapter 30 - Striving for Independence: Africa, India, and Latin America, 1900-1949 - p793 i. Sub-Saharan Africa, 1900-1945 - p794 Colonial Africa: Social and Economic Changes- Railroads used to export goods from central Africa to coastal areas for long-range exportation. During war times mineral and industrial production goods made the African economy grow. African women retained their rights of independence and separation from men despite European influence. African workers often paid little to nothing for the sake of their national economy. Europeans brought disease and hardship to Africa often. Men often left families for new opportunities in business. Religious and Political Changes- Imperialism caused Africans to either become followers of Christianity or Islam. Blaise Diagne wanted better African secondary education and soon the African National Congress was born to protect African rights. The Second World War was full of hardship for Africa, but some groups like Haile Selassie (emperor of Ethiopia) fought off Europeans to regain power. ii. The Indian Independence Movement, 1905-1947 - p800 The Land and The People- India had a lot of fertile land yet was subject to droughts and famines. Despite famine, Indian population grew and economic space for agriculture grew smaller. There were many classes, castes, religions, and languages in India causing the difficulty of unification. British Rule and Indian Nationalism- the Indian Civil Service and a viceroy worked together to administer India. Efficient bureaucracy worked to control industrialization in Indian yet maintain economy. British rule accepted except for counts of racism, which caused the creation of Indian National Congress. Bengal was divided in two for administration. Due to Bengali separation and Muslim-Hindu tension All-India Muslim League created. Religious tensions remain. India supported Britain in WWI but violent acts by General Reginald Dyer caused the friendliness between India and Britain to cease. Mahatma Gandhi and Militant Nonviolence- Mahatma Gandhi was educated in England and was part of INC. Stressed ahimsa (nonviolence) and satyagraha (the search for truth). Against power and violence. Gandhi supported poor and nonviolently revolted against British, even fasting to near death. India Moves toward Independence- British begin to lose control of India as INC take over some responsibilities. Jawaharlal Nehru elected leader of INC. India begin industrialization with tariffs. India split in support of Britain during WWII. Insubordination in India was common especially during the Bengal famine. Partition and Independence- India accepted as independent but Muslims and Hindus caused conflict Muslim League Leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah created the Muslim Pakistan. Religion based fighting erupted even as the two nations were completely independent and fighting and violence ruined celebrations. Arguments over Kashmir still remain. iii. The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1940 - p807 Mexico in 1910- Mexico was largely influenced by many European and industrial states. The classes were a mix of Europeans, Indians, and true Mexicans. Haciendas are large estates and Mestizos are European and Indian mixed race individuals. Higher classes controlled government and exposed the urban classes. 1910 government in control due to pan o palo (bread or stick) policies led by General Porfirio Diaz who set to create revenue form Mexico’s available land. Diaz brought European cultures and traditions to eliminate the rural old ways. Revolution and Civil War, 1911-1920- Mexican revolts were disorderly and wild. Madero was first but opposed by peasant leader Emiliano Zapata and then Huerta came. US interference happened. Leaders Carranza and Obregon overthrew Huerta as many other groups including Zapata and Francisco “Pancho” Villa. The Constitutionalists worked to establish a constitution that set guidelines for Mexican future government. The Revolution Industrialized, 1920-1940- The Revolution lost momentum but changed society nonetheless. Art and politics changed. Obregon was assassinated but successor started National Revolution Party. Lazaro Cardenas was the president and set on goals of Constitution of 1917. Cardenas controlled oil industry for Mexico and showed the ability of Mexico to create a new, reformed nation despite the lack of success. Lazaro made it so that Mexico controlled its own destiny. iv. Argentina and Brazil, 1900-1949 - p811 The Transformation of Argentina- Argentinean land was is called pampas (flat, fertile land). Argentinean economy based on European consumers and imperialism. European demands changed Argentinean economy and agriculture. Government represented the oilgarquia or wealthy landowners. Argentina also dependent on foreign consumer imports. Brazil and Argentina, to 1929- Brazil ruled by masters of economy with coffee and cacao. Argentina and Brazil wanted middle class expression. War weakened economy in SA. Hipolito Irigoyen was pres. of Argentina by universal suffrage. Trade post-war created a stable economy for Argentina and Brazil and reformist movements began. Technological advances left them dependent on industrialized countries. Airplanes and radio caused another form of imperialism in Argentina and Brazil. The Depression and the Vargas Regime in Brazil- Depression hit Argentina and Brazil hard and they soon turned to authoritarian dictators that promised better futures. Getulio Vargas became pres. of Brazil and wrote a new constitution. Promoted nationally owned enterprises and his policy was called import-substitution industrialization. Industrialization caused environmental effect and the creation of favelas or slums. Vargas eventually turned fascist and abolished the old constitution to create his own the Estado Novo which eventually hurt Brazil as a whole. Argentina after 1930- General Uriburu took over Argentina and contributed to the overall bad economy of Argentina at the time. After Uriburu, Juan Peron led military revolt to take over Argentina. Peron led a Nazi inspired idealist revolt that eliminated civilians from the government. Peron married Eva Duarte and gained extreme popularity. Peron led quest for Argentinean industrialization and reform. Eva died and Peron was overthrown. Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil: A Comparison- All three countries had similar backgrounds, similar unequal relationships with industrialized Europe, similar struggles with neocolonial economics, and turned to import-substitution industrialization. Yet they all had terribly different political strategies.

Part Eight - Perils and Promises of a Global Community, 1945 to the Present - p820 Chapter 31 - The Cold War and Decolonization, 1945-1975 - p820 i. The Cold War - p821 After WWII the Allies feared the USSR and the social revolution and possible war it posed. US and Europe created NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and Russia felt surrounded by enemies. The United Nations- United Nations Charter ratified 1945 and created the United Nations (UN) that had the General Assembly and the Security Council that had five permanent members (China, France, Great Britain, US, and USSR). UN has Secretary General and majority vote with vetoing power to Big 5. United Nations stressed peace although difficult to maintain. Decolonization of Africa and Asia led to the increased size of the UN for assistance. General Assembly Resolutions were often important yet sometimes ignored by Big 5. Capitalism and Communism- IMF (international Monetary Fund) was created to establish currency reserves and World Bank was created to help rebuild a war-destroyed Europe. Differences economically brought tensions between US and USSR stemming from capitalism and communism. Both sides of argument bragged economic success by industrial output, changes per capita income, and productivity. US had advantage economically due to prosperous wartime economy and lack of destruction. Marshall Plan made to reconstruct Europe with 12.5 billion dollars. European governments and economies were rebuilt and prospered. Cooperative economic and industrial plans along with Common Markets led to the creation of the European Community (EC). Western Europe prospered. USSR had trouble controlling the common goods and monitoring economy and subsequently Eastern European Nations had bad economies. USSR economy suffered and relied on foreign goods and trade. Communist views were accepted by many Eastern European nations yet were often changed to meet individual nation’s needs. West Versus East in Europe and Korea- Communist regimes in many Eastern European nations were viewed as threats to Western nations. The Truman Doctrine aided Greece and Turkey and subsequently stopped the spread of Communism in Europe as they were admitted to NATO. Warsaw Pact, NATO’s Soviet counterpart, emerged. Berlin Wall was built to separate East and West Germany. Soviets repressed revolts violently in Bloc nations. Korea brought conflict over 38th parallel caused UN intervention and the subsequent Korean War between South Korea and the US and North Korea and PRC. WWIII stopped by limiting conflicts over communism to Korean Peninsula and stopping the PRC and USSR from being agitated. 38th parallel created border b/w North and South Korea. Japan benefitted economically from Korean War. United States Defeat in Vietnam- Ho Chi Minh led Vietnamese and Indochinese Communist movements that expelled France from area and ended imperialism and colonialism for France. North Vietnamese (communists) and their guerilla fighters (Viet Cong) fought against the South Vietnamese. US supported South Vietnam to stop the spread of communism and to keep Cold War balance. Vietnam War ensued but due to Viet Cong resistance and the 1968 Tet Offensive and domestic anti-war movements war was stopped. Treaty was made and North Koreans broke treaty then took Saigon. Domestic problems in US contributed to lack of continuation of conflict in Vietnam along with fears of Chinese involvement and nuclear war. The Race for Nuclear Supremacy- Nuclear war and the potential for it shaped all post WWII decisions. USSR tested its first nuclear weapon in 1949, the US had its first hydrogen bomb in 1952, and the ISSR had its first hydrogen in 1953. Nuclear threats rose and paranoia increased. Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 led to diplomatic secession rather than warfare. Nuclear imitations on testing arose and the NPT (Non Proliferation Treaty) was created. The Helsinki Accords mandated that no boundaries should be change by political force. Cold War also led to the Space Race and the quest to bring men to outer-space.

ii. Decolonization and Nation Building - p830 After WWII and during the Cold War, imperialism and colonialism began to fade away as the colonized regions of Africa and Asia became separate nations. New Nations in South and Southeast Asia- India and Pakistan became very dissimilar and fought over the regions of Kashmir and Jammu due to religious and cultural demographics and the takeover by the Hindu leader Nehru. India stayed unified as Pakistan became separated. Southeastern Asian regions broke away from their imperial colonizers with Japanese support against Britain, France, and the Netherlands. Countries like Burma and Singapore were established. The Struggle for Independence in Africa- France wanted to keep Algeria as a colony very badly, but Algerians wanted to separate. In 1954 the Front de Liberation National (FLN) led by Arabs and Muslims from African countries fought to get French colonists out of Algeria and to restore the autonomous government of the region. Sub-Saharan Africa received independence through negotiation mainly. Economic growth and worldwide stability led to the uprising of intellectuals in Africa who resented European colonial rule. Population growth and a pre-set European developed economy allowed for nations to embrace self-determination. Young politicians like Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana) led their nations to independence through negotiation with European powers. In Kenya, farmers started a revolt called Mau Mau that led to British fighting and the eventual creation of a constitution for an independent Kenya. French colonial nations met at the Brazzaville Conference in 1944 but were not very eager for independence. Many French nations, especially those without prosperous economies, felt that independence from Europe was irresponsible and impossible. Free Africa Leader Charles de Gaulle led many nations like Guinea (Sekou Toure) to independence. Independence for the Belgian Congo was violent. Southern Africa had many European colonizers who resisted independence from colonialism. Some examples of European settlers resisting independence occurred in Mozambique (Portugal) and South Rhodesia or Zimbabwe. South Africa had racial separation (apartheid) that had white Dutch Afrikaners in chare of most of the economy. The African National Congress opposed apartheid but South Africa remained racially divided for long periods of time. The Quest for Economic Freedom in Latin America- Latin American countries had political independence but their economies were controlled by outside regions or were dependent on other countries outside of Latin America. Mexico controlled its petroleum industry and gained economic growth but suffered due to overpopulation. Guatemala ejected Jacobo Arbenz Guzman who confronted foreign economic control (United Fruit Company). Guzman tried to reform the land for peasant use and tried to rid US control of economic influence by “supporting” the USSR. The US took over Guatemala and led to economic downfall of region. Cuba’s economy was controlled by the US, with more than 25% of income of Cuba coming from US exports. Profit went to US or to rich Cubans and led to underemployment in Cuba. Cuba economy grew slower than population and government was corrupt. Fulgenci Batista staged coup and took over government. Batista led out of Cuba by Fidel Castro and his Lieutenant Ernesto “Che” Guevara. Communist reform in Cuba led by Che Guevara Castro reformed Cuban society by creating a lager middle class. To fund reforms Fidel Castro went to USSR but US cut sugar funding and economy suffered. Castro set out to eliminate economic dependence on US. US led attack at Bay of Pigs but were defeated and Castro remained n power and led to increased revolutionaries all over Latin America. Castor proved American power could be resisted. Challenges of Nation Building- Many nations joined UN during this time period due to new revolutions and nations. Nations set into place new governmental forms yet were often unsuccessful due to lack of organization or formal setup. Man nations achieved political independence and stability, yet relied on foreign intervention for their economies. Education was needed for developing nations. Cultural and religious conflicts separated groups. Very few nations truly succeeded in all these categories.

iii. Beyond a Bipolar World - p839 Newly developed nations had internal domestic problems and had to deal with the bipolarity of the world with the USSR and US stewing up the Cold War. The Third World- Bandung Conference in Indonesia began movement by small, emerging nations to band together for success and independence. Nations not involved in East (USSR) or West (US) were considered non-aligned nations or Third World Nations. Nonaligned was preferred by national leaders but US didn’t like the term due to Soviet approval of liberation movements. Non-alignment encouraged funding from superpowers and training for the newly developing country. Many nations (Egypt) succeeded in this manner of receiving money from superpowers. Japan and China- Japan signed treaties after WWII and rejected imperialism and militarism and soon became an industrial and commercial power in the world. Japan was left out of Cold War politics and rebuilt its economy during the time period with electricity, steel, and shipping. China was deeply involved in Cold War politics. PRC had main ally in USSR but Mao’s and Stalin’s Communist theories were slightly contrasting. Mao had “Great Leap Forward” plan ready yet that was unsuccessful and created Cultural Revolution in 1966. Put all young men into Red Guards yet caused mass factionalism and violence and was ended. End of Cultural Revolution was characterized by artistic and intellectual censorship. The rift between PRC and USSR was exploited by US and PRC became ally of both US and USSR. The Middle East- Arab politics concerning the Cold War was overshadowed with Israel and the conflict around it. The British encouraged the Zionist movement of Jews back into the Promised Land that inflicted on the sovereignty of Syria and especially Palestine and subsequently led to violence and conflict in the area. The UN broke Palestine into two states Arab and Jewish, and Israel was independent in 1948. Arabs in the area took up arms and revolted and fought against Israel but the Jews stood up to pressure. Arab refugees, Egyptian air strikes, Jerusalem, The West Bank, and The Gaza Strip were obstacles that Israel had to stand up to. The PLO (Palestinian Liberation Organization) took violence to remove Jews from area with terrorism often used. The wealth of oil in Arab countries was not realized until late in the century, and they formed OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) to increase revenue. Oil politics grew due to the economic stranglehold that OPEC had on the actions taken in the Middle East and worldwide. The best example is the embargo in1974 by OPEC due to US and UK support of Israel. The Emergence of Environmental Concerns- Cold War technologies, economic recoveries, worldwide industrialization, and growing populations created environmental dilemmas. Few environmentalists pushed for the superpowers to halt growth. Student revolts in the 1960’s and 1970’s led to the creation of Earth Day and the Environmental Protection Agency. Finite resources led to more efficient machines and conservation efforts and the 1972 study called The Limits of Growth. The Cold War led to many distinct problems worldwide.

Chapter 32 - Crisis, Realignment, and the Dawn of the Post-Cold War World, 1975-1991 - p847 i. Postcolonial Crises and Asian Economic Expansion, 1975-1991 A. Revolutions, Depressions, and Democratic Reform in Latin America 1. The success of the Cuban Revolution both energized the revolutionary left throughout Latin America and led the United States to organize its political and military allies in Latin America in a struggle to defeat communism. 2. In Brazil a coup in 1964 brought in a military government whose combination of dictatorship, use of death squads to eliminate opposition, and use of tax and tariff policies to encourage industrialization through import substitution came to be known as the “Brazilian Solution.” Elements of the “Brazilian Solution” were applied in Chile by the government of Augusto Pinochet, whose CIA-assisted coup overthrew the socialist Allende government in 1973 and in Argentina by a military regime that seized power in 1974.

ii. The End of the Bipolar World, 1989-1991 - p858 A. Crisis in the Soviet Union 1. During the presidency of Ronald Reagan the Soviet Union’s economy was strained by the attempt to match massive U.S. spending on armaments, such as a space-based missile protection system. The Soviet Union’s obsolete industrial plants, its inefficient planned economy, its declining standard of living, and its unpopular war with Afghanistan fueled an underground current of protest. 2. When Mikhail Gorbachev took over the leadership in 1985 he tried to address the problems of the Soviet Union by introducing a policy of political openness (//glasnost//) and economic reform (//perestroika//).

iii. The Challenge of Population Growth - p862 iv. Unequal Development and the Movement of Peoples - p867 v. Technological and Environmental Change - p870

Chapter 33 - Globalization at the Turn of the Millennium - p878 i. Global Political Economies - 880 ii. Trends and Visions - 889 iii. Global Culture - 897