Ch+26+Outline

 Chapter 26: THE NEW POWER BALANCE, 1850-1900 =__ New Technologies and the World Economy __= =//Railroads//= -**railroads**- network of iron (later steel) rails on which steam (later electric or diesel) locomotives pulled long trains at high speeds. The first railroads were built in England in the 1830s. Their success caused a railroad-building boom throughout the world that lasted well into the 20th century -(1870s) British railroad was 20,000 mi. long -built 4th largest in India -France, Germany, Canada, and Russia had longer networks -(1880s) Japan replaced imported European engineers with own engineers -United States had largest network -(1915) 390,000 miles -railroads consumed land and doubled city sizes

=//Steamships and Telegraph Cables//= -iron and then steel replaced wood used for hulls -propellers replaced paddled wheels -built more powerful and fuel-efficient engines -(1850-1900) freighter sizes increased from 200 tons to 7,500 -Suez Canal (1869) shortened distance from Europe to Asia -switch from sail power to steam -(1850-1910) fleet of merchant ships grew from 9 million tons to 35 million tons -**submarine telegraph cables**- insulated copper cables laid along the bottom of a sea or ocean for telegraphic communication. The first short cable was laid across the English Channel (1851); the first successful transatlantic cable was laid in 1866 -“annihilation of time and space”

=//The Steel and Chemical Industries//= -**steel**- a form of iron that is both durable and flexible. It was first mass produced in 1860s and quickly became the most widely used metal in construction, machinery, and railroad equipment -inventions made cheapest and most versatile metal known -(1850s) William Kelly discovered air forced through molten pig iron turned iron into steel w/o additional fuel -(1856) Henry Bessemer produced steel at 1/10 to cost of earlier methods -steel made from scrap iron or common phosphoric iron ores -(1870-1900) steel production rose from half-million tons to 28 million -cheap and abundant for rails, bridges, ships, and tin cans -chemical industry manufactured on large scale -(1856) William Perkin created first synthetic dye, aniline purple, from coal tar -Europe’s mauve decade” with fashionable purple color -chemistry advanced manufacture of explosives -(1866) Alfred Nobel created dynamite with nitroglycerin -German funded research and promoted cooperation between industries and universities -had most advanced engineering schools and scientific institutes -industrialization, unrestrained by environmental regulations, led to pollution

=//Electricity//= -**electricity**- a form of energy used in telegraphy from the 1840s on and for lighting, industrial motors, and railroads beginning in 1880s -more flexible and easier to use than water power or stationary steam engine -new applications made -**Thomas Edison**- (1847-1931) American inventor best known for inventing the electric light bulb, acoustic recording on wax cylinders, and motion pictures -(1882) created first electrical distribution network in NYC -electric streetcars and subways reduced traffic jams -electric motors replaced steam engines and power belts -used waterpower to produce electricity and built hydroelectric plant

=//World Trade and Finance//= -(1850-1913) increased tenfold -cost of freight dropped between 50-95% -capitalist economies had sudden booms followed by depressions -(1873) Austria’s bank collapse caused depression spreading to US -(1880s & mid-1890s) worldwide recessions -(late 1870s and early 1880s) Germany, US, and other Western nations raised tariffs to protect industries from British competition -Britain dominated flow of trade, finance, and information -invest ¼ of national wealth overseas -financed big building projects outside Europe -nonindustrial areas were more vulnerable to changes in price and demand

__Social Changes__
=//Population and Migrations//= -(1850-1914) European population grew from 265 million to 468 million -mass migrations caused by Irish famine of 1847-1848; persecution of Jews in Russia; poverty and population growth in Italy, Poland, Spain, and Scandinavia; and cultural ties between Britain and English-speaking nations overseas -(1850-1900) 400,000 Europeans migrated overseas per year -(1900-1914) rose to +1 million -(1850-1910) US and Canada populations rose from 25 million to 98 million -diets improved

=//Urbanization and Urban Environments//= -(1851) Britain became first with majority living in cities and towns -(1914) 80% of British, 60% of German, and 45% of French populations were urban -bad sanitation -installed pipes to bring in clean water and carry away sewage -epidemics then became rare -gas and electric lighting to make cities safer and pleasant -(20th century) municipal governments provided protection, sanitation, garbage removal, inspection, education, and recreation -couples limited number of children they had, infanticide, abandonment -used contraceptives -lower population densities and better transportation -new middle class showed wealth with servants and entertainment -new professions -immigrants saving money for family couldn’t afford public services -poorest neighborhood remained the same -electricity alleviated some environmental problems

=//Middle-Class Women’s “Separate Sphere”//= -**“Victorian Age**”- the reign of Queen Victoria of Great Britain (r. 1837-1901). The term is also used to describe late 19th century society, with its strict moral standards and sharply differentiated roles for men and women and for middle-class and working-class people -contrasted masculine ideals with feminine virtues -universal morality -**“separate spheres”** – 19th century idea in W. societies that men and women, especially of the middle class, should have clearly differentiated roles in society: women as wives, mothers, and homemakers; men as breadwinners and participants in business and politics -plumbing, central heating, vacuum cleaners, and washing machines -raised standards of cleanliness -main duty of middle-class women were to raise children -nursed babies and were involved -morality discouraged working middle-class women -many professional careers were denied to women -(1911) 73% of all England teachers were women -laws of universal mandatory education -teaching suitable to only single women -Women suffragists [Emmeline Pankhurst (Britain), Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony (US)] demanded right to vote -(1914) US women in 12 states were able to vote -(1918) British women could vote

=//Working-Class Women//= -women worked in textile industries and domestic service -working women had to keep homes and raise children while earning their living -female servants were abused -ex. Helene Demuth working for Karl and Jenny Marx -industrial countries passed protective legislation limiting hours or forbidding women employment in dangerous/hardest occupation -women did piecework or washing other people’s cloths

__Socialism and Labor Movements__
-**Socialism**- a political ideology that originated in Europe in the 1830s. Socialists supported government protection of workers from exploitation by property owners and government ownership of industries. This ideology led to the founding of socialist or labor parties throughout Europe in the second half of the 19th century -**labor unions**- an organization of workers in a particular industry or trade, created to defend the interests of members through strikes or negotiations with employers

=//Marx and Socialism//= -**Karl Marx**- (1818-1883) German journalist and philosopher, founder of the Marxist branch of socialism. Known for two books: The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (Vols. I-III, 1867-1894) -saw history as long series of conflicts between social classes -believed capitalist system allowed bourgeoisie the extract surplus value of worker’s labor -difference in wage and value of manufactured goods -saw growing monopolistic business enterprises and impoverished workers resulting into a revolution and overthrow of the bourgeoisie -(1864) help create the International Working Man’s Association -movement with hope to bring overthrow of the bourgeoisie -attracted more intellectuals than workers

=//Labor Movements//= -“friendly societies” for mutual assistance between workers -anti-combination laws banned workers from striking -abolished in Britain (1850s) and rest of Europe later -labor unions improved working conditions and insurance -British labor unions had 2 million members -German and American unions had 1 million each -universal male suffrage became law in US (1870), France and Germany (1871), Britain (1885) and rest of Europe -socialist politicians can capture seats in their nations’ parliaments -(created in 1875) revolutionary socialist program, Social Democratic Party of Germany, won 4.2 million votes and more seats in Reichstag (lower house of German parliament) -women were discouraged to participate in trade unions and politics -**anarchist**- revolutionaries who wanted to abolish all private property and governments, usually by violence, and replace them with free association of groups -ex. Rosa Luxemburg (German) and Emma Goldman (US)

__Nationalism and the Unification of Germany and Italy__
-**nationalism**- a political ideology that stresses people’s membership in a nation—a community defined by a common culture and history as well as by territory. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, nationalism was a force for unity in Western Europe. In the late 19th century it hastened the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires. In the 20th century it provided the ideological foundation for scores of independent countries emerging from colonialism.

//Language and National Identity Before 1871//
-language used to unite people of a nation and persuasion for political leaders to inspire followers -language and citizenship rarely corresponded -divided by institutions and religion -large states broke into smaller states with threat of nationalism -**liberalism**- a political ideology that emphasizes the civil rights of citizens, representative govt., and the protection of private property. This ideology, derived from the Enlightenment, was especially popular among the property-owning middle classes of Europe and N. America