Ch+30+Outline

CHAPTER 30: Striving for Independence: Africa, India, and Latin America, 1900-1949 =__ Sub-Saharan Africa, 1900-1949 __=

// Colonial Africa: Economic and Social Changes //
-(1930) Nigeria ruled by Europeans -colonial govts. Took African lands and sold/leased them to European companies or white settlers -Europeans dominated wholesale commerce -immigrants controlled retail trade -women played role in retail trades, selling pots and pans, cloth, food, and other market items -economic independence -finances separate from those belonging to husbands -Africans worked for European-owned mines and plantations -police powers of colonial govts. forced Africans to work -harsh condition and little/no salary -Europeans brought modern health care into Africa -(1930s) insufficient amount of aid available -migrants had spread diseases and epidemics -left workers undernourished and vulnerable to illnesses -(1930s) began investment in African agricultural development and health care to rewind negative consequences -(1900) Ibadin was only sub-Saharan African city with +100,000 inhabitants -dozen of cities reached size fifty years later -cities had racial segregation -white-settler colonies of E. and S. Africa had most intense racial discrimination

// Religious and Political Views //
-W. missionaries introduced Christianity (all except in Ethiopia) -successful spread in W. and S. Africa -attraction with mission schools -educated new elites -access to new employments -craft skills and basic literacy -churches related Christian beliefs with ideas of racial equality and participation -Islam spread from E. African coast and S. Sahel to W. African coast -literacy in Arabic -less against traditional African customs -some Africans could gain secondary or college education -liberal Western ideas and racial discrimination started from rise of nationalism -**Blaise Diagne**- (1872-1934) Senegalese political leader. First African elected to the French National Assembly. During WWI, in exchange for promises to give French citizenship to Senegalese, he helped recruit Africans to serve in the French army. After war, he lead a movement to abolish forced labor in Africa -wanted Africans to be able to participate in politics and have fair treatment in French army -(1920s) J.E. Casely Hayford led movement in British W. Africa for greater autonomy -**African National Congress**- an organization dedicated to obtaining equal voting and civil rights for black inhabitants of S. Africa. Founded in 1912 as the South African Native National congress, it changed its name in 1923. Though it was banned and its leaders were jailed for many years, it eventually helped bring majority rule to S. Africa -inspired by ideas of Pan-Americans and Europeans’ ideas of liberty and nationhood -WWII brought increased forced labor, inflation, requisitions of raw materials, and hope -**Haile Selassie**- (1892-1975) Emperor of Ethiopia (r. 1930-1974) and symbol of African independence. He fought the Italian invasion of his country in 1935 and regained his throne during WWII, when British forces expelled the Italians. Ruled Ethiopia as a traditional autocracy until he was overthrown in 1974 -peaceful early 20th century -Africa entered global economy with building of cities, railroads, and enterprises -colonialism hastened spread of Christianity and Islam

// The Land and the People //
-(1896-1900) drought caused 2 million to die of starvation -(1900) population grew to 250 million, 319 million (1921), and 389 million (1941) -Indian men moved to cities to take jobs in industry -govt. cut down most of hardwood forests for construction and railroads -Indians divided into many classes -peasants were majority -paid rents to landowner, interest to moneylender, taxes to govt -little left to improve standard of life -govt. protected property owners with huge tracts of land -variety of workers, most were poor -people of India had large assortment of language -English became medium of communication of W.-educated middle class -English-speaking bureaucrats, professionals, and merchants played leading role in independence movement -majority practiced Hinduism -discouraged intermarriage and social interactions with those who weren’t Hindus -1/4 of India were Muslims but majority in NW and E. Bengal -dominated N and C. India until displaced by British (18th century)

// British Rule and Indian Nationalism //
-Indian Civil Service was one of the more honest bureaucracies of all time -duty to protect Indian people from negativities of industrialization yet defend position of being an Indian nationalist -strengthened Britain’s control and increased India’s foreign trade -**Indian National Congress**- a movement and political party founded in 1885 to demand greater Indian participation in govt. Its membership was middle class, and its demands were modest until WWI. Led after 1920 by Mohandas K. Gandhi, it appealed increasingly to the poor, and it organized mass protests demanding self-govt. and independence -**Bengal**- region of NE India. First part of India to be conquered by the British in the 18th century and remained the political and economic center of B. India throughout the 19th century. The 1905 split of the province into predominantly Hindu West Bengal and predominantly Muslim East Bengal (now Bangladesh) sparked anti-British riots -**All-India Muslim League**- Political org. founded in India in 1906 to defend the interest of India’s Muslim minority. Led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, it attempted to negotiate with the Indian National Congress. In 1940, the League began demanding a separate state for Muslims, to be called Pakistan -many Hindus were poor and low-caste Hindus who had converted to Islam to escape discrimination -British created separate representation and different voting qualifications for Hindus and Muslims -(1911) British transferred India’s capital (Calcutta) to Delhi -disturbed Indians and caused two mass movements (one Hindu, other Muslim) -British resisted India’s industrialization to maintain commercial position and prevent social conflict -Pramantha Nath Bose joins forces with Jamsetji Tata after British’s opposition in their industry -(1911) Tata’s son Dorabji opened India’s first steel mill in Jamshedpur -symbol of India’s national pride -Indians who served for British army during WWI wanted reward (voice/concession) -(1917) British created vague promise of self-govt. -(late 1918-early 1919) influenza epidemic in N. France spreading to India -(April 13, 1919) General Reginald Dyer fired at crowd in Punjab, angering many -after retirement, British House of Lords approved his actions

// Mahatma Gandhi and Militant Nonviolence //
-**Mohandas K. Gandhi**- (1869-1948) leader of the Indian independence movement and advocate of nonviolent resistance. After being educated as a lawyer in England, he returned to India and became Indian National Congress’ leader in 1920. He appealed to the poor, led nonviolent demonstrations against British colonial rule, and was jailed many times. Soon after independence he was assassinated for attempting to Hindu-Muslim rioting -“Mahatma”, the “great soul” -preached virtues of nonviolence and search of truth -refused violence among his followers -(1921) wore simple peasant garb instead of cloths worn by the wealthy -(1929) led followers on an 80-mile walk and gathered salt from the sea as act of civil disregard for govt.’s monopoly on salt (Walk to the Sea) -spent total of 6 years in jail, every arrest made him more popular

// India Moves Toward Independence //
-(1920s) British slowly gave in to Indian National Congress and the Muslim League -hand control of education, economy, and public works -admitted more Indians into Civil Service and officer corps -Indian politicians gained right to erect high tariff barars against imports -entrepreneurs built plants to manufacture iron, steel, sugar, textiles, and etc. -early industrialization provided jobs -**Jawaharlal Nehru**- (1889-1964) Indian statesman. He succeeded Mohandas K. Gandhi as leader of the Indian National Congress. He negotiated the end of British colonial rule in India and became India’s first prime minister (1947-1964) -wanted a modern industrial India -(1939) Viceroy Lord Linlithgow declared war w/o consulting Indians -Congress-dominated provincial governments resigned in protest -Gandhi demanded immediate independence when British offered after WWII -WWII divided Indian people -most felt fighting was to defend own country than Britain -some Indians joined Japanese side -(1943) famine in Bengal -British transported troops and equipment for Japanese invasion and supplies ran short in Bengal, starving 2 million people

// Partition and Independence //
-(1937) tension between Hindus and Muslims when the Indian National Congress won provincial elections and refused to share power with Muslim League -**Muhammad Ali Jinnah**- (1876-1948) Indian Muslim politician who founded the state of Pakistan. A lawyer by training, he joined the All-India Muslim League (1913). As leader of the League from the 1920s on, he negotiated with the British and the Indian National Congress for Muslim participation in Indian politics. From 1940 on, he led the movement from the independence of India’s Muslims in a separate state of Pakistan, founded in 1947 -riots between H. and M. in Bengal and Bihar -British proposals were futile in keeping India united -(early 1947) Indian National Congress accepted India was in two states -(June) Lord Mounbatten (last viceroy) decided for immediate independence -(August 15) British India gave way to new India and Pakistan -Nehru and Indian National Congress formed first Indian govt. and Muslim League and Jinnah formed Pakistan’s govt. -12 million people had to abandon homes and half-million died -few Hindus in Pakistan and Muslims were minority in India except in Kashmir (annexed by India becase of local Hindu maharaha and irrigation)

// Mexico in 1910 //
-Mexico was most influenced by Spanish during colonial rule -(1821) independence caused half-century chaos -society divided into rich and poor and into Spanish, Indian, and mixed ancestry -less than 1% were wealthy with Spanish origin but owned 85% of land -Mestizos (mixed Indian and European ancestry and mostly peasants) were slightly better off than Indians -small urban middle class had little political influence -foreigners owned most businesses -(1821) wealthy Mexican and American bribed and forced to gain land in S. Mexico -commercial crops replaced corn and beans -peasants lost land, accesses, forced to work on haciendas, and fell into debt -(1880s) American investors purchased claims of +2.5 million acres that were held by Yaqui people in N. Mexico -General Porfirio Diaz (1830-1915) ruled Mexico under motto “Liberty, Order, Progress” -“liberty” for rich owners and foreign investors to gain more land -“order” with rigged election and bribes -“progress” with importing of foreign capital, machinery, and technicians -discriminated mestizo even though he was one himself -devaluated Mexican culture

// Revolution and Civil War, 1911-1920 //
-Francisco I. Madero (1863-1913) was welcomed by some into presidency after Diaz was exiled (1911) but opposed by peasant leaders -(1913) overthrown and murdered by General Vitoriano Huerta -Woodrow Wilson showed disapproval with sending US Marines to occupy Veracruz -**Emiliano Zapata**- (1879-1919) Revolutionary and leader of peasants in the Mexican Revolution. He mobilized landless peasants in SC Mexico in an attempt to seize and divide the lands of the wealthy landowners. Through successful for a time, he was ultimately defeated and assassinated -**Francisco “Pancho” Villa**- (1879-1923) A popular leader during the Mexican Revolution. An outlaw in his youth, when the revolution started, he formed a cavalry army in the N. of Mexico and fought for the rights of the landless with Emiliano Zapata. Assassinated in 1923 -both unable to rise above regional and peasant origins to lead national revolution -Constitutionalists had fewer soldiers but held major cities, controlled oil exports, and had modern weapons who took over most of Mexico -(1919) killed Zapata and Villa (1923) -2 million lost lives in civil war -adopted many of agrarian reforms (restore lands to Indains) -proposed social programs to appeal to middle and working class -Constitution of 1917 promised universal suffrage, one-term presidency, state-run education to free poor from Catholic Church, end of debt peonage, restriction on foreign ownership of property, and laws specifying minimum wages and maximum hours as laborers’ protection

// The Revolution Institutionalized //
-rural representatives, unionized workers, and public employees allowed in inner circle -surge of creativity (Jose Clemente Orozco, Diego rivera, etc) -(1928) Obregon assassinated -successor was Plutarco Elias Calles -found National Revolution Party, a forum where pressure groups and vested interests compromise -**Lizaro Cardenas**- (1895-1970) President of Mexico (1934-1940). Brought major changes to Mexican life by distributing millions of acres of land to peasants, bringing representatives of workers and farmers into the inner circles of politics, and nationalizing oil industry -renamed NRP to Mexican Revolutionary Party -removed generals from govt. positions -set to delivering promises of Constitution -gave 44 mil. Acres to peasant communes -replaced church-run schools w/ govt. schools -nationalized railroads and other businesses -expropriation of foreign-owned oil companies -(1938) controlled foreign-owned oil industry -after term, no more monopoly of land and resources by wealthy people, tamed military, Catholic Church didn’t control education, and oil nationalization demonstrated Mexico’s independence from foreign corporations and military intervention -Revolution allowed more sectors to participate in politics, no presidents had term longer than 6 years, social reform promises (education, wages, and security) and redistribution of land to peasants

// The Transformation of Argentina //
-most land was flat and fertile -(19th century) exports based on hides of longhorn Creole cattle and merino sheep’s wool -pampas became greatest producers of wheats and meat -govt. represented interest of wealthy landowners (oligarquia) who controlled large haciendas //Brazil and Argentina, to 1929//

//Brazil and Argentina, to 1929//
-most of Argentina was flat, fertile land -based on hides of Creole cattle and merino wool of sheep for export -European introduced Lincoln sheep and Hereford cattle -govt. represented interest of wealthy landowners -controlled large haciendas -focused on farming and allowed for foreign companies influences

//Brazil and Argentina, to 1929//
-Brazil produced most of the world’s coffee and cacao -let British companies penetrate them with railroads, harbors, and import goods -middle classes demanding share in govt. -(1942) rubber exports replaced by cheaper plantation rubber from SE Asia -**Hipolito Irigoyen**- (1850-1933) Argentine politician, president of Argentina from 1916-1922 and 1928-1930. first president elected by universal male suffrage, he began presidency as a reformer, but later became conservative -trade with Europe resumed; agricultural exports remained high -Argentina and Brazil used profits to industrialize and improve -workers and middle-class demanded social reforms and voice in politics -llaid groundwork for later reformist movements -Brazilians had Alberto Santos-Dumont fly an airplane -first person outside US -“wireless telegraphy” competition -(1919) President Irigoyen of Argentina granted radio concession to German firm -British, French, German, and American radio companies control all radio communications in L. America

//The Depression and the Vargas Regime in Brazil//
-(1929-1932)) value of agricultural and mineral exports felly be two-thirds -Argentina and Brazil unable to afford to import manufactured goods -**Getulio Vargas**- (1883-1953) Dictator of Brazil from 1930-1945 and from 1951-1954. Defeated in the presidential election of 1930. He overthrew the govt. and (1938) created “New State”, a dictatorship that emphasized industrialization and helped the urban poor but did little to alleviate the problems of the peasants -wrote a new constitution -limited president to one term -raised import duties -promoted national firms and state-owned enterprise -(1930s) construct Volta Redonda steel mill -(1945) overthrown by military coup -**import-substitution industrialization**- an economic system aimed at building a country’s industry by restricting foreign trade. Especially popular in L. America countries such as Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil in the mid-20th century. Proved successful for a time but couldn’t keep up with technological advances in Europe and N. America -reopen and open mines -(1930) Henry Ford cleared land along Tapjos River for largest rubber plantation -abandoned project out of opposition from Brazilian people -cleared 3 million acres of trees

//Argentina After 1930//
-(1930) General Jose Uriburu overthrew President Irigoyen -didn’t lessen poverty of workers and middle class -(1943) military revolt -**Juan Peron**- (1895-1974) President of Argentina (1946-1955, 1973-1974). As a military officer, he championed the rights of labor. Aided by his wife Eva Duarte Peron, he was elected president in 1946. He built up Argentinean industry, became very popular among the urban poor, but harmed the economy -spent much on social welfare projects and military -depleting the money earned during the war -lost political skills after Eva’s death and overthrown by military coup -**Eva Duarte Peron**- (1919-1952) Wife of Juan Peron and champion of the poor in Argentina. She was a gifted speaker and popular political leader who campaigned to improve the life of the urban poor by founding schools and hospitals and providing other social benefits

//Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil: A Comparison//
-(first half of 20th century) Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil had parallel courses -due to unequal relations with industrial countries of Europe and N. America -struggled to improve lives of peasants and middle class -turned to state intervention and import-substitution industrialization -mining, farming, ranching, deforestation, and irrigation -Argentina and Brazil interrupted with military coups -Mexicans developed sense of national identity and civic pride

__Conclusion__
-Sub-Saharan Africa, India, and L. America weren’t involved in war yet affected by demands of industrial powers -Mexico, Argentina, Brazil were politically independent yet had economic ties for industrial nations -revolution in Mexico brought national identity -Argentina and Brazil had greater economic independent -social unrest, militarism, and dictatorship -(1949) self-determination and economic development starts in sub-Saharan Africa -nationalism and yearning for social justice -originated from industrial nations -sometimes divided regions along social, ethnic, or religious lines -elites wanted industrialization to modernize country -peasants and middle class promoted nationalist and revolutionary movements to improve lives