Chapter+19+Outline

Chapter 19: SOUTHWEST ASIA AND THE INDIAN OCEAN, 1500-1750 =__ The Ottoman Empire, to 1750 __= **-Ottoman Empire**- Islamic state founded by Osman in northwestern Anatolia ca. 1300. After the fall of Byzantine Empire, the Ottoman Empire was based at Istanbul (formerly Constantinople from 1453-1922. Encompassed lands in the Middle East, North Africa, the Caucasus, and E. Europe.

// Expansions and Frontiers //
-three factors causing empire’s growth -wisdom of Osman and descendants -control of link between Europe and Asia at Gallipoli on the Dardanelles strait -creation of army taking advantage of traditional skills of the Turkish cavalryman and new military possibilities presented by gunpowder and Christians POW -(1389) conquered Serbian kingdom at the Battle of Kosovo -(1402) Timur defeated Bayazid I and captured him at the Battle of Ankara -civil war disputes until sultanate was unified by Mehmed I -(1453) Mehmed I conquered Constantinople -(1516 and 1517) Selim I conquered Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and Syria -Red Sea as southern frontier -**Suleiman the Magnificent**- (1494-1566) most memorable sultan of the Ottoman Empire (r. 1520-1566); aka Suleiman Kanuni, “The Lawgiver.” Expanded empire in the Balkans and E. Mediterranean -(1521) conquered Belgrade -(1522) expelled Knights of the Hospital of St. Johns from Rhodes -(1529) invaded Vienna -(1452-1502) opening rounds of 2-century war with Venice -Venice was prospering as trade nation -let other nations carry trade to and from their ports while acknowledging their authority -(early 16th century) S. India and Sumatra sent emissaries to Istanbul for naval support against Portuguese -Ottomans sent small naval force to Indonesia but not consistently aggressive in the Indian Ocean

// Central Institutions //
-lightly armored warriors skilled at shooting short bows -Christian POW as military slaves -**Janissary**- infantry, originally of slave origin, armed with firearms and constituting the elite of the Ottoman army from the 15th century until corps was abolished (1826) -fighting with guns and on foot -(until mid 16th century) forbidden to be married or hold jobs -lived in barracks and trained year round -**devshrine**- “selection” in Turkish. System by which boys from Christian communities were taken by the Ottoman state to serve as Janissaries -Osmanli (court language) had similarities with Turks of Anatolia in basic grammar and vocab -those who spoke Osmanli were the askeri (“military”) class and served in bureaucracy or military -dependent of sultan but exempt from taxes -(1492) raya with population immigrating into Ottoman territory after expulsion from Spain -(1571) combined Christian forces and victorious in Battle of Lepanto -land-grant system -cavalrymen controlled rural areas in Anatolia and Balkans -maintained order, collected taxes, and reported for campaigns -sultan gave justice for raya and loyal military in exchange for raya paying taxes for financial support -Islam gradually became dominant religion -Shari’a standardized urban institutions and social life

// Crisis of the Military State, 1585-1650 //
-increasing cannon and lighter-weight firearms -sultan reduced number of landholding cavalrymen to sustain finances -(late 16th century) inflation caused by cheap silver -govt. charged emergency surtaxes for funds to pay Janissaries and bureaucrats -(1590-1610) revolts harming Anatolia -banditry increased (17th century) married Janissaries abolished devshirme system

// Economic Change and Growing Weakness, 1650-1750 //
//­//-sultan no longer led armies -mother and chief ueunuh oversaw palace and became judges or successors -Janissaries traded and craft while power and privileges increased -tax farming replaced land grants with specific taxes -(1650) port of Izmir pop. as 30-40,000 people -became multiethnic, multireligious, and multilinguistic Muslim Turkish town with Ottoman’s govt.’s inability to control trade and increasing dominance of European trades -local farmers started planting cotton, cash crops, and tobacco -capitulations (trade agreements) -> European domination of Ottoman trade -**Tulip Period**- (1718-1730) last years of the reign of Ottoman sultan Ahmed III, during which European styles and attitudes became briefly popular in Istanbul -craze for tulips -similar to Dutch tulips being introduced into Holland from Istanbul and (1936) peaked -Sultan Ahmed III renounced -dictatorship of Patrona Halil who had led revolt and later seized and executed -(mid 18th century) Mamluks regained dominant position in Egypt and Janissary commanders became independent rulers in Baghdad =__ The Safavid Empire, 1502-1722 __= -**Safavid Empire**- Iranian kingdom (1502-1722) established by Ismail Safavi, who declared Iran a Shi’ite state

// The Rise of the Safavids //
-Ismail – hereditary leader of militant Sufi brotherhood, Safaviya -(1502) declared himself shah of Iran -realm would practice Shi’ite Islam and subjects abandoned Sunni beliefs -resistance and asylums for Sunni refugees causing wars -imported Arab Shi’ite scholars from Lebanon and Bahrain to create Shi’ite religious education

// Society and Religion //
-(1500) library of legal and theological writings -Iranian scholars and writes red Arabic and Persian with preference to cursive forms for Arabic scripts -(1258) Mongol invasion caused Iraq to separate an Arab zone from a Persian zone -tiles for Iranian mosques decoration -Arabic and Persian poetry prospered -madrasas that trained ulama to maintain and interpret Sharia -Sufism fused with militan political objectives in Iran -**Hidden Inam**- last in a series of 12 descendants of Muhammad’s son-in-law Ali, whom Shi’ites consider divinely appointed leaders of the Muslim community. In occlusion since ca. 873, expected to return as messiah at the end of time -every first 2 weeks of every lunar year issued commemoration of matrydom of Inam Husayn with preaching and theaters

// A Tale of Two Cities: Isfahan and Istanbul //
-**Shah Abbas I**- (r. 1587-1629) 5th and most well known ruler of the Safavid dynasty in Iran. (1588) Moved capital to Isfahan. -Istanbul w/ mosques with greystone domes and pointed minarets influenced by Hagia Sophia -Isafan mosques had brightly tiled domes with gentle peaks and modest minarets -Istanbul harbor as primary Ottoman seaport with many European merchants arrival -Jews, Hindus, and Amerian Christians broght in by Shah Abbas controlled Isfahan’s trade -scarce wheeled vehicles -crowded houses and interior courtyards -guilds in markets -women seldom appeared in public -quarters and harem were separated from where men received visitors -glazed geometric or floral tiles for wealthy while Istanbul’s residences were built out of wood -law permitted wife to retain property after marriage -women appeared in court cases while testifying for themselves -shawls and scarf -lightweight trousers under dress -men wore light trousers, long shirt, jacket, and turban -wealthy man wore caftans -men controlled public life and common attachment to young boys

// Economic Crisis and Political Collapse //
-silk fabrics of N. Iran -specific carpet designs per city -(1522) earliest carpets in tomb of Shaikh Safi al-Din, founder f Safviya -many subjects lived by farming or herding -difficulty financing troops -Christian converts similar to Janissaries -(1629) Safavid territory’s overland trade declined after death of Sha Abbas and mismanagement of silk trade -(1722) weak govt and Afghans captured Isfahan and ended Safavid rule -(1736-1747) Iran briefly reunified by Nadir Shah and purchased English naval vessels for Persian Gulf usage =__ The Mughal Empire, 1526-1761 __=

// Political Foundations //
**-Mughal Empire**- Muslim state (1526-1761) exercising dominion over most of India in 16th and 17th century -founder was Babur (1483-1530) -(1526) Babur defeated sultan of Delhi at Battle of Panipat -created India -**Akbar**- (1542-1605) Most illustrious sultan of the Mughal Empire in India (r. 1556-1605). Expanded the empire and pursued a policy of conciliation with Hindus -**mansabs**- in India, grants of land given in return for service by rulers of the Mughal Empire -Surat port as center for pilgrims headed for Mecca and foreign trade -no navy or merchant ships // Hindus and Muslims // //­//-Hindus horrified by Muslim destruction of Hindu cultural monuments, Muslim expansion, and POW enslavements -**Rajputs**- members of mainly Hindu warrior caste from NW India. Mughal emperors drew most of their Hindu officials from this caste, and Akbar I married a Rajput princess -Akbar commanded govt. at age 20 -(1569) Hindu Rajput wife gave birth to his heir with Muslim and Hindu ancestry -(1579) declared himself as God’s representative and center of new “Divine Faith” -attraction and political influence of Sufi ideas -mixture of traditions flourished until Aurangzeb’s (great-grandson, r. 1658-1707) restricted Hindus -Urdu poety and prose increased -most of Mughal India was Sunni Islam -caused by eastward movement of Ganges River delta and spread of rice cultivations -Mansabdars with land grants collected labor force, cleared forests, and had rice paddies -**Sikhism**- Indian religion founded by the guru Nanak (1469-1539) in the Punjab region of NW India. After the Mughal emperor ordered the beheading of 9th guru in 1675, Sikh warriors mounted armed resistance to Mughal rule -meditation to seek enlightenment -single community with division of caste -10th avengeful guru created “the army of the pure” (religious order dedicated to defending Sikh beliefs) -hair uncut beneath turban -carrying a comb, steel bracelet, and sword/dagger -wearing military style breeches -(18th century) Mughals conflict with Sikhs and Hindu guerrilla forces

// Central Decay and Regional Challenges, 1707-1761 //
-Aurangzeb didn’t inegrate new S. India’s Mughal terriotiies into imperial structure -(1857) end of empire -(1741) Joseph Francois Depleix had presidency over French Pondicherry and started new European involvement in India =__ Trade Empires in the Indian Ocean, 1600-1729 __=

// Muslims in the East Indies //
-(near 8th century) Muslims reached East Indies -Islam resisted Protugues, Spanish, and Dutch intruders -Spanniard called Muslims of N. Africa “Moros” -**Acheh Sultanate-** Muslim kingdom in N. Sumatra. Main center of Islamic expansion in SE Asia in the early 17th century, declined after the Dutch seized Malacca from Portugal in 1641 -(1641- 1699) women ruled in Acheh until scholars obtained ruling tha tIslam didn’t approve female rulers -Islam promoted distribution of writing -Christian missionaries gained more converts in regions that had no yet converted to Islam -N. Philippines

// Muslims in East Africa //
-people living on Swahili Coast contacted little with those in dry lands -(16-17th century) relocation of peoples due to drought -ports competing in ivory, ambergris, and forest product exports -slave trading with 2.1 million exported slaves (1500-1890) -**Oman**- Arab state based in Musqat, the main port in the SW region of the Arabian peninsula. Oman succeeded Portugal as power in the W. Indian Ocean in 18th century -(1729) Protugues lost permanent control over Mombasa and left with Mozambique and ports in India (Gao) and father east (Macao and Timor) -**Swahili**- Bantu language with Arabic loanwords spoken in coastal regions of East Africa -Islam spread in S. Sudan -Dutch had role in driving Portuguese away from E. Indies -(1641) seized Malacca from Portugal -**Batavia**- fort established ca. 1619 as headquarters of Dutch East India Company operations in Indonesia; today the city of Jakarta -Java held lumber and coffee -Dutch as middlemen between SE Asian producers and European buyers -(1642 & 1643) Abel Tasman was first European to set food on Tasmania and New Zealand and to sail around Australia =__ Conclusion __= -rulers concentrated on conquering lands -trade carried in European vessels after creation of joint-stock companies (1600) -govt. relied on land taxes